V. Read and translate the sentences with Absolute Participle Constructions.

1. There are 20 thumb-suckers among 60 children, some continuing the habit after 10 years of age.

2. Children must understand the habit of thumb-sucking, the understanding of parents being equally important.

3. Mouth breathing being caused by enlarged lymphoid tissue, this factor is a common condition in children.

4. With the roots of the teeth exposed, the periodontist can remove plaque, calculus and stain from the previously unexposed tooth structure.

VI. Read and translate the sentences with incomplete subordinate clauses.

1. Mouth breathing, if continued, can disturb the physiology of the mouth.

2. When asked he always gives useful advise.

3. Thumb-sucking, if not stopped, provides ill-effects for the child’s health.

4. When used in time this method gives good results.

5. This deformity, when stopped, spontaneously correct itself.

6. This drug, when used in small doses, can be very effective.

7. Mouth breathers, when classified, are divided into three categories.

VII. Make the following sentences negative.

1. They tried to help me.

2. She is very modest.

3. I can imagine their reaction.

4. He wants to devote his life to medicine.

5. The patient was allowed to walk.

6. The scientists are speculating about many problems.

7. They have already established new demands.

VIII. Read and translate he negative sentences.

1. The doctor does notallow his patient to work hard.

2. If a decayed tooth isnottreated in time pulpitis can develop.

3. My friend did notwant to study medicine.

4. A neglected general appearance does not necessarily mean that the person does notcare about his dental health.

5. He made no contribution to the science.

6. There are no medical article in this journal.

7. No dentist can stop a tooth if it is too bad.

8. The twins were so alike that we could see no difference between them.

9.No longer is the patient a passive receiver of health care.

10. Nobody could answer the question.

11. We havenever heard about this new method.

12. The patient couldnot fall asleep until he took the drug.

13. He will be hospitalized unlesshis condition becomes better.

IX. Read and translate the text.

Text A. Habits

    Mouth Breathing. Mouth breathing is habitual respiration through the mouth instead of through the nose. Mouth breathers can be classified into three categories: those who breathe through the mouth because of obstructions in the nasal passages, those who do it purely out of habit, and those for whom the anatomic structure of the lips make it difficult to maintain closure of the lip and rest. Structural resistance to the passage of air through the nose can be caused by hypertrophy of the turbinates, by allergies or chronic infections, by s deviated nasal septum, or by enlarged lymphoid tissue. The latter is common condition in children.

    Mouth breathing, if continued, can disturb the usual oral physiology and may result in gingivitis and gingival enlargement, particularly of the anterior region. It is believed that the airstream striking the gingival tissues causes capillary vasoconstriction and increases the susceptibility of the desiccated tissues to infection. So relationship between mouth breathing and malocclusion has been definitely established.

    Thumb-Sucking. There is a considerable opinion concerning the effect of thumb-sucking on the oral structures. Sillman made a careful study of 60 children from birth to 14 years of age; of this group 20 were thumb-suckers, some continuing the habit after 10 years of age. He found that in those with this habit a slight displacement of the oral structures might be occurring during the first 4 years but that the deformity spontaneously corrected itself when the habit was stopped.

    It is generally accepted that the child must want to break the habit before any method will prove effective. An understanding of the possible ii-effects of thumb-sucking is not beyond the understanding of the 4-year old but equally important is the understanding of the parents and the dentists in helping the child to break the habit.

X. Answer the following questions.

1. What is mouth breathing?

2. How can mouth breathers be classified?

3. What can mouth breathing be caused by?

4. What can mouth breathing result in?

5. What is the relationship between mouth breathing and malocclusion?

6. What are the effects of thumb-sucking?

XI. Make up questions to the underlined words.

1. Mouth breathing is very harmful.

2. Many people breathe through the mouth because of the obstruction in the nasal passages.

3. Mouth breathing can disturb the usual oral physiology.

4. There is a considerable difference in opinion concerning the effect of thumb-sucking.

5. It is generally accepted that the child must break the habit of thumb-sucking.

6. Parents of the child must understand the ill-effects of thumb-sucking.

XII. Fill in the gaps with the prepositions and adverbs where required.

People who breathe … the mouth can be classified … three categories: those who do it … obstructions … the nasal passages, those who do it … habit, and those who cannot maintain closure … the lips … their anatomic structure. Mouth breathing can disturb the oral physiology and may result … gingivitis.

There are different opinions concerning the effect thumb-sucking …the physiology … the mouth. Scientists made a careful study … 60 children … birth … 14 years … age, and 20 … them were thumb-suckers. The child must break the habit … thumb-sucking … the help … the parents.

XIII. Translate the following word combinations:

дыхание через рот, распространенное состояние, носовые проходы, смыкание губ, привести к гингивиту, чисто по привычке. разница во мнении, затруднять, чувствительность к инфекции, влияние сосания большого пальца, искривленная носовая перегородка, незначительное смещение, выше понимания, бросить привычку

Texts for Supplementary Reading

History of Dentistry

Mesopotamia

Between 3500 and 3000 B.C. on the fertile plain between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers the Sumerians developed an advanced civilization. Many of their scripts on clay tablets have survived in the ruins of the royal library of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal who lived in the 7^th century B.C. It is from these tablets that much of our knowledge of Mesopotamian medicine and dentistry is derived. As in primitive societies the medicine practiced in Mesopotamia was largely magical or religious in nature. Great emphasis was placed on divination especially by examination of the liver of a sacrificed sheep. it was believed that demons inhabiting the body were responsible for disease.

A high point for medicine and surgery came during the empire of Babylonia. For the first time physicians of a true sort treated diseases by drugs and by simple surgery. Among the clay tablets in Ashurbanipal’s library are a number devoted exclusively to diagnosis and prognosis and the state of the teeth was used as a means of determining the course and source of an illness.

India

Indian medicine was based on the notion that the 700 vessels of the human body carried in addition to blood three basic principles similar to the cardinal humors of Greek medicine. Any derangement of these would result in disease. A dislocated jaw, for example, was attributed to an inrush rather than to having opened the mouth too wide.

Most of the knowledge of early Indian dental treatment comes from the Sushruta (means Collection). Sushruta prescribed excision for fleshy growth of the palate, red tumors of the palate and tumors over the wisdom teeth. If a tumor grew on the gums or the tongue it was scarified or cauterized rather than excised.

Cautery was often the preferred remedy especially in diseases of the mouth. The surgeon used a specially designed iron whose flattened ovoid end was heated red hot. Hot fluids might also be used - honey, oil, or wax brought to the boiling point.

Fractures of the jaws were treated by complicated bandaging. Both medical and religious beliefs have done much to focus attention of an Indian upon his teeth. The Hindus consider the mouth the gateway to the body and therefore insist it to be kept scrupulously clean. The Brahmins, or priests, rub their teeth for about an hour while facing the rising sun reciting their prayers and invoking heaven’s blessing on themselves and their families. No devout Hindu will have breakfast without first cleaning his teeth, tongue and mouth for he believes that many ailments are caused by bad teeth.

The daily ritual is not confined to brushing the teeth. After the regular ablutions and evacuation the tongue is scraped with a specially designed instrument and the body is anointed with aromatic oil. Finally, the mouth is rinsed with concoctions of betel leaves, camphor, and cardamom, or other herbs. More than two millenniums ago Greek doctors were familiar with Indian mouth washes for bad breath.

China

    The Chinese were making significant contribution to human progress. It is not surprising, therefore, that dentistry was practiced early in China. there is evidence that the Chinese used arsenic to treat decayed teeth - probably to kill the pulp and relieve the pain of toothache - about the second century A.D. and they developed a silver amalgam for fillings more than a thousand years before dentists in the West. Other early writings indicate that full dentures were being constructed by the Chinese as early as the 12^th century.

When Marco Polo traveled to China in the 1270s he found in the province of Kardandan that “both men and women of this province have the custom of covering their teeth with thin pieces of gold which are fitted with great nicety to the shape of the teeth and remain on them continually”. Whether these gold plates served a cosmetic or a therapeutic purpose we do not know. Certainly, however, the technical ability to practice restorative dentistry existed in China in the 13^th century.

    In the field of oral medicine the Chinese also made definite contributions as long ago as the 1300s. One of their great diagnosticians described the whitish spots in the mouth that are the premonitory symptoms of measles.

    Oral surgery also has a long history in China. We read in an ancient monograph that a cleft lip was repaired in an operation performed during the Ch’in dynasty (255-206 B.C.) the earliest report of such surgery anywhere in the world. By the 17^th century A.D. Chinese surgeons were familiar with many diseases of the mouth and throat and undertook the treatment of such conditions as tonsillar abscesses and epitheliomas of the lips. And during the 18^th century further advances were made in understanding oral diseases and oral anatomy.

The Mayas

It is believed that the Indians of the Western Hemisphere arrived approximately 15,000 years ago having crossed over from Asia. The Mayas were skilled in placing beautifully carved stone inlays in carefully prepared cavities in the upper and lower anterior teeth and occasionally in the bicuspid teeth. These inlays were made of a variety of materials. There is no doubt that the cavities were prepared in living teeth.

The Mayas also filled their teeth in a variety of ways. It is probable that each design had a particular tribal or religious significance since more than fifty different patterns have been identified. The incisal edges of some teeth were filed with a single cut, some had double cuts, some had the distal portions of the edges removed leaving the mesial portions intact, and some were filed to points. There is strong evidence that the Mayas practiced in implantation of alloplastic (nonorganic) material in living persons.

The Egyptians

The practice of medicine in Egypt was clearly established as long as 4,600 years ago. Soon doctors began to specialize in healing certain parts of the body and certain organ systems.

The earliest dentist whose name we know is Hesi-Re who lived during the reign of Zoser. Further evidence that dental treatment was distinct from other aspects of medical treatment is found in the stele ordered by the Pharaoh Sahura as a gift to his favourite physician.

The Egyptians suffered from a variety of dental diseases and even the pharaohs were not immune to their ravages. It appears that extraction was the principle remedy for the relief of dental distress. It is also probable that early dentists drilled holes through the cortical plated of the jawbones in order to relieve the pressure of the purulent exudate associated with an abscessed tooth. A number of skulls thus drilled have been found, one of the earliest dating from the period of the Old Kingdom. It is apparent that the Egyptians were skilled in the use of the drill as can be seen in many of their tomb paintings.

One of the principle causes of dental disease among the early Egyptians was the coarse diet consumed by rich and poor alike. Severe wear of the occlusal surfaces of the teeth resulted in consequent pulp exposure and abscess or cyst formation.

Although there is no mention of surgical intervention for dental diseases, the Papyrus of the 17^th century B.C. cites numerous operations on fractures and dislocations of the mandible, compound, comminuted fractures of the maxilla, perforation of the zygoma, and laceration of the lip. Since forceps are so prominently pictured in various stela and wall carvings we can assume that extractions were indeed carried out.

Oral hygiene seem to have been given no thought by these ancient people. Though thousands of toilet and cosmetic articles have been excavated or found in tombs, no toothbrush or similar cleaning device has been discovered yet. Many skulls show severe accretions of tartar with consequent periodontal breakdown and bone loss. No attempt seems ever to have been made to remove these accumulations from the teeth.

    Many ancient skulls show evidence of trauma to the teeth. Malocclusion was also prevalent, with the pharaohs’ skulls showing particularly striking evidence of severe protrusion of the upper front teeth.

The Greeks

Toward the beginning of the 6^th century B.C. the developed comprehensive philosophical system of thought and the natural sciences and medicine were an outgrowth of Greek system. Medical schools came into being and the were flourishing by the middle of the5th century B.C. The general method of treatment was fairly formalized. The patient first relaxed took in the beauty of the surroundings and enriched his soul by attending theatrical performance. Then he would present himself to the priest who would give him a sleeping portion and direct him to a bed where he would fall into a fitful sleep.

In contrast to this system of practice is the Hippocratic methods probably the work of numerous early physicians are known collectively as the Hippocratic Corpus.

Scattered through the Hippocratic writings are numerous references to the teeth, their formation, eruption and to maladies of the teeth and mouth and methods of treatment. They show awareness of the way teeth developed: “The first teeth are formed by the nourishment of the fetus in the womb and after birth by mother’s milk. Those that come forth after these are shed are formed by food and drink. The shedding of the first teeth generally takes place at about seven years of age, those that come forth after this grow old with the man unless some illness destroys them”.

    The Romans

When the medical profession was in its infancy in Rome, dentistry was being practiced there. There is no word for dentist in the early Latin language for dentistry as separate profession did not exist among the Romans but was included as a part of medical practice and Roman physicians made no distinction between diseases affecting the mouth and teeth and those affecting other parts of the body.

Greeks were apparently the first to dissect cadavers and probably also the bodies of condemned criminals. Although little remains of their writings, they were described in later centuries as having discussed the blood supply to the teeth as well as cases of persons who had died from the extraction of a tooth.

The practice of oral hygiene was slow in coming to Greece. Dental care was not known until Greece became a Roman province. Under Roman influence the Greeks learned to use a multitude of materials as tooth cleansers among them pumice, emery, talk. Although the Greeks considered strong teeth indicative of good health, large teeth were for them a symbol of ferocity.

A Roman physician who wrote extensively on dental treatment was Scribonius Largus, personal doctor to the emperor Claudius (about 47 A.D.). Among his various suggestions for treating toothache was the following passage which gave further credence to ancient notion that a toothworm was responsible for dental caries: ”Suitable for toothache are fumigations made with seeds of belladonna, these must be followed by rinsings of the mouth with hot water, in this way, sometimes, as it were, small worms are expelled”.

The most concrete evidence that it was the physician who practiced dentistry in Rome can be found in the works of Galen who lived in the capital from about 166 until his death in about 201.

In addition to the treatment of oral diseases and the extraction of teeth the Romans were skilled in restoring carious teeth with gold crowns and replacing missing teeth by means of fixed bridgework. The Romans had a high regard to oral hygiene. Although they did not have soap, they did use water freely for washing. The use of tooth-cleaning powders was apparently widespread. Upper-class Romans outdid hygiene: when guests were invited to dinner they were provided not only with spoons and knives but also with elaborately decorated toothpicks of metal, often of gold which they took home with them. And it was considered quite proper to pock the teeth between each course of the meal.

Fifth to Twelfth Centuries

With the fall of Rome the Western world gradually sank into a mire of ignorance, superstition and intellectual passivity. Countries were split up into small, isolated city-states. Seeking protection against hostile forces people put themselves under the protection of the Church which became the only institution that exercised restraint upon the barbarian lords. Latin became the official language of cultural expression.

    With Christian control of thought and learning came monastic medicine which was no longer based on rational principles.

    The most important documentation of dental practices of the time was provided by Saint Hildegard, abbess of Bingen, in Germany (1099-1179). She wrote of the healing power of plants, meats, and minerals in her book Physica giving their German names. Her information on the teeth was Aristotelian for she ascribed toothache to the presence of decaying blood in the arteries that supply the teeth. She also mentioned the toothworm and advocated the smoke of burning aloe and myrrh to drive it out. She lists numerous remedies for toothache. Hildegard also believed in simple preventive measures, her only reference to oral surgery is lancing an abscess of the gum to facilitate the drainage of pus.