Britain Island, or a Peninsula?

Since the moment when Britain and France became linked with a tunnel this may be a logical question. Figuratively speaking, Britain has been solidly connected with the continent by means of the Channel tunnel. Psychologically, the British, who always regarded themselves as being separated from Europe by the English Channel, now have to change their minds. No wonder, many British people who were against the tunnel project were motivated by psychological arguments. They could not get used to the idea that Britain would have a physical link with the continent. However, this idea has became a reality, and now most people see the advantages of a direct transport link with Europe which does not depend on the weather and other natural factors as it is the case concerning the ferry link.

The idea of building a tunnel which would connect Britain and France was first suggested by a French enginner whose name was Albert Mathieu. He came up with this idea in 1802. Napoleon who was preparing for an invasion of Britain also favored the idea of building a bridge or tunnel across the English Channel. Two attempts have been made to build a tunnel to link Britain with the continent. The first attempt was made in 1882, but it failed because science and technology had not made enough progress to put such great plans into practice. The second attempt was undertaken in 1974, but it was too expensive, and so again the idea was put aside.

At last in 1986 a third attempt was made: the British and French governments agreed to pay for a tunnel. Margaret Thatcher, who was the Prime Minister of Britain, and Francois Miterrand, the President of France, signed an agreement to build a tunnel, and digging began.

The engineers chose the narrowest part of the English Channel between Folk stone, on the British side and Calais, on the French. This part of the Channel is only 42 kilometres wide. However, the tunnel itself is 69 kilometres long.

The construction of the tunnel was carried out by 10 British and Franch construction companies, but the company responsible for the whole project, and for running the trains is known as the Eurotunnel, which is a joint British-French group. The tunnel itself consists of two main tunnels each with a diameter of 7.2 metres located 40 metres under the seabed, and the third auxiliary tunnel of 4.5 metres between them intended for workers to service the main tunnels. There were many problems what to do with the rock waste, and the people living near the entrance to the tunnel did not want the rock waste to be put in heaps nearby.

Finally a good way out was found: the rock waste was used to strengthen the coastline against the storms which destroy much of the shores. The engineers had many problems also as to what means of transport would be used in the tunnel. At first it seemed that the tunnel would be used by cars, but then this project was not accepted, besause there would be problems with ventilation to remove the exhaust from the movement of the cars. Then, you had to solve the question of lighting the whole way through the tunnel,which would cost extra money. Eventually the builders decided to use electric trains which would move between the terminals near Folkestone and Calais. The trains used in the tunnel are known as trains because they move at a high speed of 160 kilometres per hour. Thus the journey through the tunnel takes about 35 minutes. The speed trains which move today through the tunnel are also known as shuttle trains because they run in both directions. Eurotunnel trains provide a drive-on drive-off service, with separate shuttle trains for passengers , freight and cars.

Economics in GOVERNMENT.

Economists have in recent years become the counselors of presidents and prime ministers. The political agenda is full of economic issues: Should we raise taxes to curb the budget defecit? Should the nation protect the automobile industry from Japanese competition? What should we do to the curb acid rain? Political leaders need economic advisers to provide counsel on such complicated questions.

Increasingly, the international side of economic activity concerns policymakers. As the nation's trade deficit climbed in the 1980, Congress labored to rewrite the rules of international commerce. And, as we note in the last chapter of this book, historian Paul Kennedy has shown the close link of relative economic strength with military and political power, forecasting a future decline of the United States as a great Power in the years ahead.

The heads of government must constantly make vital decisions that involve economics. But of course national leaders need not themselves be professional experts in economics. Kahter, they need to be literate «consumers» of the conflicting economic advice given them.

Similarly, few students will become professional economists. Many will study economics for only a term or two. This book is intended to give a thorough introductory overview of the whole subject. Your view of the world will never be the same after a single semester of economics.

TAXATION

Everyone knows that taxation is necessary in a modern state: without it, it would not be possible to pay the soldiers and policemen who protect us: nor the workers in government offices who look after our health, our food, our water, and all the other things that we cannot do for ourselves, nor also the ministers and members of parliament who govern the country for us. By means of taxation we pay for things that we need just as much as we need somewhere to live and something to eat.

But though everyone knows that taxation is necessary, different people have different ideas about how taxation should be arranged. Should each person have to pay a certain amount of money to the government each year? Or should there be a tax on things that people buy and sell? If the first kind of taxation is used, should everyone pay the same tax, whether he is rich or poor? If the second kind of taxation is preferred, should everything be taxed equally?

In most countries, a direct tax on persons, which is called income tax exists. It is arranged in such a way, that the poorest people pay nothing, and the percentage of tax grows greater as the taxpayer's income grows.

But countries with direct taxation nearly always have indirect taxation, too. Many things imported into the country have to pay taxes or «duties». Of course, it is the men and women who buy these imported things in the shops who really have to pay the duties, in the form of higher prices. In some countries, too, there is a tax on things sold in the shops. If the most necessary things are taxed, a lot of money is collected, but the poor people suffer most. If unnecessary things like jewels and fur coats are taxed, less money is obtained, but the tax is fairer, as the rich pay it.

Probably this last kind of indirect tax, together with a direct tax on incomes which is low for the poor and high for the rich, is the best arrangement (Hill L. A., Fie 1 den R. D. Further Comprehension and Precis Pieces for Overseas Students. P. 31).

PUBLIC SPIRIT

Each nation has its own peculiar character which distinguishes it from others. But the peoples of the world have more points in which they are all like each other than points in which they are different. One type of person that is common in every country is the one who always tries to do as little as he possibly can and to get as much in return as he can. His opposite, the man who is in the habit of doing more than is strictly necessary and who is ready to accept what is offered in return, is rare everywhere.

Both these types are usually unconscious of their character. The man who avoids effort is always talking about his «rights»: he appears to think that society owes him a pleasant, easy life. The man who is always doing more than his share talks of «duties»; he feels that the individual is in. debt to society, and not society to the individual. As a result of their views, neither of these men thinks that he behaves at all strangely.

The man who tries to do as little as he can is always full of excuses: if he has neglected to do something, it was because he had a headache, or the weather was too hot – or too cold – or because he was prevented by bad luck_y At first, other people, such as his friends and his employer, generously accept his stories; but soon they realize what kind of person he is. In the long run ' he deceives only himself. When his friends become cool towards him and he fails to make progress in his job, he is surprised and hurt. He blames everyone and everything except himself. He feels that society is failing in its duties towards him, and that he is being unjustly treated. He soon becomes one of the discontented members of the society he lives in.

His public-spirited opposite is never too busy to take on an extra piece of work: that is the strangest thing about the whole business. If you want something done in a hurry, don't go to the man who has clearly not much to do. He will probably have a dozen excellent excuses for not being able to help you, much as he claims he would like to. Go to the busiest man you know, particularly if you are sure that he has not a spare minute in the week. If your work is really important, he will make time for it (Hill L. A., Fielden R. D. S. Further Comprehension and Precis Pieces for Overseas Students. P. 77).

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