Electro-Optical Transmitters

The efficiency of an electro-optical transmitter is determined by many factors, but the most important are the following: spectral line width, which is the width of the carrier spectrum and is zero for an ideal monochromatic light source; insertion loss, which is the amount of transmitted energy that does not couple into the fibre; transmitter lifetime; and maximum operating bit rate.

Two kinds of electro-optical transmitters are commonly used in optical fibre links—the light-emitting diode and the semiconductor laser. The light-emitting diode (LED) is a broad-line width light source that is used for medium-speed, short-span links in which dispersion of the light beam over distance is not a major problem. The LED is lower in cost and has a longer lifetime than the semiconductor laser. However, the semiconductor laser couples its light output to the optical fibre much more efficiently than the LED, making it more suitable for longer spans, and it also has a faster “rise” time, allowing higher data transmission rates. Laser diodes are available that operate at wavelengths in the proximity of 0.85, 1.3, and 1.5 micrometre and have spectral line widths of less than 0.003 micrometre. They are capable of transmitting at over 10 gigabits per second. LEDs capable of operating over a broader range of carrier wavelengths exist, but they generally have higher insertion losses and linewidths exceeding 0.035 micrometre.

Optoelectronic Receivers

The two most common kinds of optoelectronic receivers for optical links are the positive-intrinsic-negative (PIN) photodiode and the avalanche photodiode (APD). These optical receivers extract the baseband signal from a modulated optical carrier signal by converting incident optical power into electric current. The PIN photodiode has low gain but very fast response; the APD has high gain but slower response.

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Optical Fibres

An optical fibre consists of a transparent core sheathed by a transparent cladding and by an opaque plastic protective coating. The core and the cladding are dielectrics with different indexes of refraction, the cladding having a lower index than the core. According to a standard adopted by the International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (CCITT), the outer diameter of a high-performance clad fibre is approximately 125 micrometres, while the core diameter typically ranges from 8 to 50 micrometres. The abrupt change in refractive index between the core and the cladding makes the inside of the core-to-cladding interface highly reflective to light rays that graze the interface. The fibre therefore acts like a tubular mirror, confining most of the propagating rays of light to the interior of the core.

The bandwidth of an optical fibre is limited by a phenomenon known as multimode dispersion, which is described as follows. Different reflection angles within the fibre core create different propagation paths for the light rays. Rays that travel nearest to the axis of the core propagate by what is called the zeroth order mode; other light rays propagate by higher-order modes. It is the simultaneous presence of many modes of propagation within a single fibre that creates multimode dispersion. Multimode dispersion causes a signal of uniform transmitted intensity to arrive at the far end of the fibre in a complicated spatial “interference pattern,” and this pattern in turn can translate into pulse “spreading” or “smearing” and intersymbol interference at the optoelectronic receiver output. Pulse spreading worsens in longer fibres.

When the index of refraction is constant within the core, the fibre is called a stepped-index (SI) fibre. Graded-index (GI) fibre reduces multimode dispersion by grading the refractive index of the core so that it smoothly tapers between the core centre and the cladding. Another type of fibre, known as single-mode (SM) fibre, eliminates multimode dispersion by reducing the diameter of the core to a point at which it passes only light rays of the zeroth order mode. Typical SM core diameters are 10 micrometres or less, while standard SI core diameters are in the range of 50 micrometres. Single-mode fibres have become the dominant medium in long-distance optical fibre links.

Other important causes of signal distortion in optical fibres are material dispersion and waveguide dispersion. Material dispersion is a phenomenon in which different optical wavelengths propagate at different velocities, depending on the refractive index of the material used in the fibre core. Waveguide dispersion depends not on the material of the fibre core but on its diameter; it too causes different wavelengths to propagate at different velocities. As is the case in multimode dispersion, described above, material and waveguide dispersion cause spreading of the received light pulses and can lead to intersymbol interference.

Since a transmitted signal always contains components at different wavelengths, material dispersion and waveguide dispersion are problems that affect not only SI and GI fibres but also SM fibres. For SM fibres, however, there exists a transmission wavelength at which the material dispersion exactly cancels the waveguide dispersion. This “zero dispersion” wavelength can be adjusted by modifying the material composition (and hence the refractive index) as well as the diameter of the fibre core. In this way SM fibres are designed to exhibit their zero dispersion wavelength near the intended optical carrier wavelength. For a CCITT standard SM fibre with an 8-micrometre core, the zero dispersion wavelength occurs near the 1.3-micrometre wavelength of certain laser diodes. Other SM fibres have been developed with a zero dispersion wavelength of 1.55 micrometres.

Noise in an optical fibre link is introduced by the photoelectric conversion process at the receiver. Losses in signal power are primarily caused by radiation of light energy to the cladding as well as absorption of light energy by silica and impurities in the fibre core.

The production process for manufacturing optical fibre is extremely demanding, requiring very close tolerances on core and cladding thickness. Although the manufacture of low-grade fibre from transparent polymer materials is not uncommon, most high-performance optical fibres are made of fused silica glass. The refractive index of either the core or the cladding is modified during the manufacturing process by diluting pure silica glass with fluorine or germanium in a process known as doping. Several fibres can be bundled into a common sheath around a central strengthening member to form a fibre-optic cable. For fibre cables that must operate in adverse environments — for instance, undersea cables — other layers of strengthening and protecting materials may be added. These layers may include single-fibre buffer tubes, textile binder tape, moisture barrier sheathing, corrugated steel tape, and impact-resistant plastic jackets.

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