The heart and the vascular system.

Great Britain.

The United Kingdom of and Northern Ireland is situated on the British Isles. It consists of four parts: England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. The territory of the United Kingdom is about 244 000 square kilometers. The population of the United Kingdom is over 56 million people. The capital of the United Kingdom is London. The surface of the United Kingdom is varies greatly. The northern and the western parts of the country are mountainous and are called the Highlands. All the rest is the vast plain, which is called the Lowlands. The most important of the rivers are the Severn and the Thames. The mountains, the Atlantic Ocean and the warm waters of the Gulf Stream influence the climate of the Great Britain. Winters are not cold, summers are not hot. Great Britain is a highly developed industrial country. Great Britain is a country with old cultural traditions and customs. The most famous educational centers are Oxford and Cambridge universities. The education is not free, it is very expensive. The United Kingdom is a monarchy and the Queen is a head of the State. But in practice the United Kingdom is ruled by the elected government with the Prime Minister at the head. There are three main political parties in Great Britain: the Labour party, the Conservative party and the Liberal party.

My favorite town.

Almaty is the southern capital of Kazakhstan. It is one of the beautiful cities of the world. Almaty is situated at the foot of the Alatau mountains. Almaty is a city-garden. It is not only a cultural but also an industrial, a financial and a political centre of Kazakhstan. There are very many places of interest in Almaty, such as the “Medeo” skating rink, a steel-rope way to Kok-Tobe and so on. Almaty has a long history. The town was founded in 1853, then it was called “Verny”. For a long time its name was “alma-Ata” – “The Father of the Apples”. Almaty is a city of nice hospitable people, the city with great future.

Education in Great Britain.

Pre-school education in England begins at the age of 3 or 4. Children at this age attend nursery schools. Primary education begins at the age of 5. Children start learning in an infant school. They are taught “3 R’s”: Reading, writing and arithmetic. When they are 7 pupils move to a junior school, which lasts four years till they are 11. They study a lot of subjects. Most of children go to state schools where education is free. Some children go to private school, where parents have to pay for the education. The most famous Public schools are Eton, Harrow, and Rugby. Secondary education begins at 11. The majority of secondary schools are Comprehensive school where boys and girls study together. Every pupil has to choose a set of subjects to learn. At around 16 years old teenagers take some exams and coursework to get General Certificate of Education. Those who choose to stay for 2 further years to pass A level exams. These exams will give them a chance to enter the university. 

Education in Kazakhstan.

Before going to school, children attend kindergartens until they are 6 or 7. Compulsory education begins in our country at the age of 7, when children go to primary school. The secondary stage begins from the 5^th form when children start studying a lot of new subjects, such as Literature, Natural Sciences and others. Examinations are taken at the end of the 9^th and the 11^th forms. Some children may leave school after the 9^th form and continue their education at vocational or technical schools or colleges. Secondary education in our country is free of charge. Among secondary schools there are gymnasiums, colleges and lyceums most of them are private. There are institutes, schools of higher educations, universities and academies among higher educational institutions. In 1992 Kazakhstan system of higher education adopted the western model – a 4 years course of studies with getting the Bachelor degree after graduation and a 2 years course of study with getting the Master’s degree after graduations. In order to enter a higher educational institution young people have to take an entrance examination.      

Famous scientists of Great Britain.

Edward Jenner.

Edward Jenner was born in 1749 in Berkeley, England and died in 1823, English surgeon and discoverer of vaccination for smallpox. He was a country youth, the son of clergyman. He attended grammar school and at the age of 13 was apprentice to nearby surgeon. On completing his apprentice ship at the age of 21 he went to London and became the house pupil of John Hunter. Jenner had been expressed by the fact that a person who had suffered an attack of cowpox could not take the smallpox – could not become infected whether by accidental or in intentional exposure to the smallpox. Jenner concluded that cowpox not only protected against smallpox but could not be transmitted from one person to another as a deliberate mechanism of protection. In may 1796 Jenner found a young dairymaid, Sarah Nelmes, who had fresh cowpox lesions on her finger. The first child whom Jenner introduced the substance from cowpox vesicles was an eight-year-old boy, Jimmy Phipps. Then he inoculated the boy again, this time with smallpox matter. No disease developed. The procedure spread rapidly to the European continent6 then to America, and soon was carried around the world. Jenner not only received honors but also aroused opposition and found himself subjected to attacks, despite which he continued his activities in behalf of vaccination.  

London.

London is the capital of Great Britain, its political, economic and commercial centre. It is one of the largest cities in the world and the largest city in Europe. It’s population is about 8 million. London is situated on the river Thames. Traditionally it is divided into the several parts: The City, Westminster, the West End and the East End. The City is the oldest part of the London. It is a financial and business centre. Numerous banks and firms are concentrated here. Few people live in the City but over a million come to work here. Two architectural masterpieces are situated within the City: St. Paul’s Cathedral and the Tower of London. Westminster is the aristocratic official part of the London. It includes Buckingham Palace, where the Queen lives and the houses of Parliament along the north bank of the Thames. Westminster Abbey is the place where the coronation of all kings and queens has taken place. The West End is the richest and most beautiful part of London. The best hotels, restaurants, parks are situated there. The East End is an industrial district of London. There are many factories there. The region is densely populated by working class families. Trafalgar square is the geographical center of London; it was named in the memory of Admiral Nelson’s victory in the battle of Trafalgar in 1805.  The tall Nelson’s Column stands in the middle of the square.

Kazakhstan.

The Republic of Kazakhstan lies right in between Europe and Asia. It stretch from the east of the Caspian Sea and Volga plains to the mountainous Altay and from the foothills of Then Shan in the south and southeast to the West-Siberian lowland in the north. The size of the territory places Kazakhstan ninth in the world. The capital of Kazakhstan is Astana. Kazakhstan has the sharp continental climate. When it is spring in the south, the north area is covered with snow and severe storm. July is the hottest season, and February is the coldest month. Kazakhstan’s population includes many ethnic groups with their own language and culture brought together through their history. The largest ethnic groups are Kazakhs and Russians. The main religions are Islam and Christianity. The official language of Kazakhstan is Kazakh. State organizations and local governmental bodies also use Russian. The Kazakhs are an extremely hospitable people. If you come to a Kazakh home unexpected you will be received as if you had been invited. Since old times hospitality has been the most distinctive feature of the Kazakh people. Kazakhstan is market-economy state. The currency of the Kazakhstan is the Tenge. It was introduced o 15^th November 1993.    

The Skeleton.

The skeleton is composed of bones. In the adult the skeleton has over 200 bones. The bones of the skull consist of cranial and facial parts. There are 26 bones in the skull. The bones of the trunk are the spinal column and the chest. The spinal column consists of the vertebrae. The vertebra is the small bone, which is formed by the body and the arches. There are 32 or 34 vertebrae in the spine of the adult. In the spinal column there are 7 cervical vertebrae, 12 thoracic vertebrae, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral vertebrae and from 1 to 5 vertebrae which form the coccyx. The chest is composed of 12 thoracic vertebrae, the breastbone and 12 pairs of ribs. The breastbone is a long bone in the middle of the chest. It is composed of 3 main parts. The basic part of the chest is formed by the ribs. On each side of the chest 7 ribs are connected with the breastbone by cartilages. The cartilages of 3 other ribs are connected with each other and the 7^th rib. The eleventh and the twelfth ribs are not connected with the breastbone. Each rib is composed of a head, neck and body. The lower extremity consists of the thigh, leg and foot. It is connected with the trunk by the pelvis. The upper extremity is formed be the arm forearm and hand. It is connected with the trunk by the shoulder girdle. 

The lungs.

The lungs are the main organ of the respiratory system. There are 2 lungs in the human body located in the lateral cavities of the chest. The lungs are separated from each other by the mediastinum. The lungs are covered with the pleura. Each lung has the base, apex, 2 border and 3 surface. In the adult male  the weight of the lungs is about 1350gr. The right lung is about 15% heavier than the left one. The vital capacity of the lungs is 3.5-4 litres in the male and it is 3-3.5 litres in the female. The right lung consists of 3 lobes and the left one consists of 2 lobes. In infants the lungs are of a pale rose color but later they become darker. The lung is covered with an external serous coat. The parenchyma of the lungs consists of the bronchial tree with elastic tissue and vessels.

The heart and the vascular system.

The heart is an inner muscular organ placed within the chest and included in the pericardium. The weight of the heart is about 300 grams in the male and about 220 grams in the female. The heart consists of two separate chambers divided by the septum. Each of the chambers has two connected parts: the atrium and the ventricle. The atrio-ventricular valves separate the atria from the ventricle. The right atrium is larger than the left one. The right ventricle is triangular in form and has thick walls. The left ventricle is longer and more conical than the right one. The valves are located at the entrance and exit of each ventricle. In the left chamber the atrium and the ventricle are separated by the mitral valve. In the right chamber the atrium and the ventricle are separated by the tricuspid valve. There is the semilunar valve of the aorta between the left ventricle and the aorta.  And the semilunar valve of the pulmonary artery is located between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery. The vascular system consists of three groups of vessels – arteries, veins and capillaries. The vessels carrying blood to and from the tissue of the body compose the general circulation.  They are called the systemic vessels. The pulmonary circulation is formed by the vessels carrying blood to and from the lungs. The portal system is formed by the veins passing to the liver. 

The Alimentary tract.

The alimentary tract is a musculomembraneous canal about 8.5 metres in length. It extends from the oral cavity to the anus. It consists of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestine. The liver with gallbladder and pancreas are the large glands of the alimentary tract. The first division of the alimentary tract is formed by the mouth. From the mouth food passes through the pharynx to the esophagus and then to the stomach. The stomach is a dilated portion of the alimentary canal. It has capacity of from 2.14 to 4.28 litres. The small intestine is a thin-walled muscular tube about 6.5 metres long. The small intestine is composed of the duodenum, jejunum and ileum. The large intestine is about 1.5 metres long. It is divided into caecum, colon, sigmoid and rectum. The liver is the larges gland in the human body. It is in the right upper part of the abdominal cavity under the diaphragm. The gallbladder is a hollow sac lying on the lower surface of the liver. The pancreas is a long thin gland lying behind the stomach.

The Brain.

The weight of the human brain is from one to two kilograms. It has a volume of about 3.21 litres and consists of about 12 billion cells. The brain is the centre of a wide system of communication. It has been found out that a constant flow of stimuli comes into the brain through the spinal cord. The stimuli come to the brain from our eyes, ears, and others sense organs for pain, temperature, smell and other feelings. When all the received stimuli have been summarized and analyzed the brain sends orders through the nerve fibers in the spinal cord to different parts of the human body. It is due to these orders that one eats, moves, hears, sees and does many other things. Many experiments have been carried out by the investigators and it is due to these experiments scientists knew that there are a lot of areas in human brain which control vision, hearing, physical movements and even emotions.  The brain is located in the cranial cavity of the skull.

Polyclinics.

The state has established a wide network of medical institutions to protect the health of people. One of such medical institutions is the polyclinic. Many specialists including therapeutists, surgeons and others work at the polyclinic. During the medical examination a physician usually asks the patients what he complains of and according to the complaints carries on the medical examination. The physician listens to the patient’s heart and lungs and measures his blood pressure and if necessary asks the patient to take the temperature. The laboratory findings which include blood analysis, the analysis of urine and other tests held the physician to make a correct diagnosis and administer a proper treatment. Also local physician go out to the calls to examine those patients who are seriously ill and whose condition is bad. Such sick persons receive a sick-leave. Any physician of the polyclinic knows his patients very well because he treats only a definite number of patients. Every patient has a personal patient’s card which is filled in by his physician. Everything about the patient - the diagnosis of the disease, the course of the disease, the changes in the patient’s condition after the treatment are written down in the card. If it necessary a nurse will come to the patient’s house to give him the administered injections or carry out any of the doctor’s administrations.