THE NON-FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB (THE VERBALS)

§ 1. The verbals are three in number: the Infinitive, the Gerund and the Participle. The verbals combine the characteristics of the verb with those of some other parts of speech.

The distinction between the finite forms of the verb and the verbals is as follows: the finite forms of the verb have always a subject, with which they agree in number and person:

I am a doctor; he is a doctor; they are doctors

The verbals are not restricted in number and person by any grammatical subject. Accordingly, they cannot express predication by themselves; they can only be part of the predicate and they must always be in connection with the finite form of the verb.

She suddenly began to speak. (London)

He went on talking. (Maxwell)

I must ask you to excuse me. (Maugham)

§ 2. The characteristic traits of the verbals are as follows:

1. They have a double nature, nominal and verbal. The Participle combines the characteristics of a verb with those of an adjective; the Gerund and the Infinitive combine the characteristics of a verb with those of a noun.

2. The tense distinctions of the verbals are not absolute (like those of the finite verb), but relative; the form of a verbal does not show whether the action it denotes refers to the present, past or future; it shows only whether the action expressed by the verbal is simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb or prior to it.

3. All the verbals can form predicative constructions, i. e. constructions consisting of two elements, a nominal (noun or pronoun) and a verbal (participle, gerund or infinitive); the verbal element stands in predicate relation to the nominal element, i. e. in a relation similar to that between the subject and the predicate of the sentence.

They sat down to supper, Manston still talking cheerfully. (Hardy)

Они сели ужинать; Мэнстон продолжал весело разговаривать.

Manston still talking cheerfully is a predicative construction with a participle: the participle talking stands in predicate relation to the noun Manston, which denotes the doer of the action expressed by the participle.

In the sentence a verbal may occur:

a) singly, i. e. without accompanying words.

He went on talking.

То decide is to act. 

The rain showed no sign of stopping.

b) in phrases, i. e. with one or several accompanying words (an object or an adverbial modifier to the verbal). A phrase should not be confused with a predicative construction: between the elements of a phrase there is no predicate relation as it does not include a noun or pronoun denoting the doer of the action expressed by a verbal.

He was on the point of resuming his promenade. (Galsworthy)

She strained her ears to catch the words.

He had been a loving lovable little chap. (Galsworthy)

с) in predicative constructions.                              '

My mistress being dead..., I had to look out for a new place. (Ch. Bronte)                                     

Так как моя хозяйка умерла, мне пришлось искать другое место.

There is no mistake about his being a genius. (Shaw) 

He может быть никакого сомнения в том, что он– гений. 

She heard him unbar the door and go out into the yard. (Hardy)

Она слышала, как он отодвинул засов и вышел во двор.

THE PARTICIPLE

§ 3. The Participle is a non-finite form of the verb, which has a verbal and an adjectival or an adverbial character. There are two participles in English– Participle I and Participle II, traditionally called the Present Participle and the Past Participle.                                                      

Note. These traditional terms are open to objection on the ground that Participle I does not necessarily refer to the present, just as Participle II need not refer to the past. The difference between them is not a difference in tense, but chiefly a difference in voice.

Participle Iis formed by adding the suffix -ing to the stem of the verb; the following spelling rules should be observed:

a) If a verb ends in a mute e, the mute e is dropped before adding the suffix -ing:

to give — giving, to close — closing.

b) If a verb ends in a consonant preceded by a vowel rendering a short stressed sound, the final consonant is doubled before adding the suffix -ing:

to run—running, to forget—forgetting, to admit— admitting.

A final t is doubled if it is preceded by a vowel letter rendering a short vowel sound, stressed or unstressed:

to expel– expelling, to travel– travelling.

c) The verbs to die, to lie and to tie form Participle I in the following way: dying, lying, tying.

Note. A final у is not changed before adding the suffix -ing:

to comply– complying, to deny — denying.

§ 4. As has already been stated, the Participle has a verbal and an adjectival or adverbial character. Its adjectival or adverbial character is manifested in its syntactic functions, those of attribute or adverbial modifier.

I hated the hollow sound of the rain pattering on the roof. (Du Maurier) (attribute)

Мне был отвратителен глухой шум дождя, стучавшего по крыше.

The frozen ground was hard as stone (Dodge) (attributive)

Замерзшая земля была тверда как камень.

Having garaged his car, he remembered that he had not lunched. (Galsworthy) (adverbial modifier)

Поставив машину в гараж, он вспомнил, что не завтракал.

When left to herself, she spent her time at her writing desk. (Trollope) (adverbial modifier)

Оставшись одна, она провела время за своим письменным столом.

Note. Some participles have lost their verbality altogether and have become adjectives: interesting, charming, alarming, etc.; complicated, distinguished, furnished, etc. E.g. an interesting book, a charming girl, the alarming news, a complicated problem, a distinguished writer, a furnished apartment.

The verbal characteristics of the Participle are as follows:

1. Participle I of a transitive verb can take a direct object.

Opening the door, he went out on to the terrace. (Galsworthy)

2. Participle I and Participle II can be modified by an adverb.

Leaving the room hurriedly, he ran out. (Thackeray)

Deeply affected, he rose and leftthe room. (Bennett)

3. Participle I has tense distinctions; Participle I of transitive verbs has also voice distinctions. In Modern English Participle I has the following forms:

Active                Passive

Indefinite                            reading               being read

Perfect                                having read        having been read

§ 5. The tense distinctions of the participle. Like the tense distinctions of all the verbals, those of the participle are not absolute but relative.

Participle I Indefinite Active and Passive usually denotes an action simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb; depending on the tense-form of the finite verb it may refer to the present, past, or future.

When reading The Pickwick Papers, one can't help laughing.

When reading The Pickwick Papers, I couldn't help laughing.

When reading The Pickwick Papers, you will roar with laughter.

Sometimes Participle I Indefinite denotes .an action referring to no particular time.

The towerlooming in the distance was built in the XVth century.

Башня, возвышающаяся вдали, была построена в XV веке.

Participle I Perfect Active and Passive denotes an action prior to the action expressed by the finite verb.

Having been up all night, they are in no mood for jokes.

Так как они не спали всю ночь, им было не до шуток.

Participle I Perfect is often rendered in Russian by деепричастие совершенного вида:

One day he came in having just received some letters...

Однажды он пришел, только что получив несколько писем...

It should be noted that a prior action is not always expressed by Participle I Perfect: with some verbs of sense perception and motion, such as to see, to hear, to come, to arrive, to seize, to look, to pass, to cross, to turn, to close, to open and some others. Participle I Indefinite is used even when priority is meant.

Arriving at home and going upstairs, we found that my guardian was out (Dickens)

Приехав домой и поднявшись наверх, мы обнаружили, что опекуна моего дома не было.

Hearing a footstep below he rose and went to the top of the

stairs. (Hardy)

Услышав шаги внизу, он встал и вышел на лестницу.

Participle II has no tense distinctions; it has only one form which can express both an action simultaneous with, and prior to, the action expressed by the finite verb; the latter case is more frequent.

A few rough logs, laid side by side, served for a bridge over the stream. (Irving)

Несколько грубых бревен, положенных рядом, служили мостиком через ручей.

I was reminded of a portrait seen in a gallery. (Du Maurier)

Мне вспомнился портрет, который я видела в картинной галерее.

In some cases Participle II denotes an action referring to no particular time.

He is a man loved and admired by everybody.

§ 6. The voice distinctions of the participle. Participle I of transitive verbs has special forms to denote the Active and the Passive voice.

When reading a good book I do not like to be disturbed.

Being written in pencil the letter was difficult to make out.

Having written some letters he went to post them.

Having been written long ago the letter was illegible.

Participle II of transitive verbs has a passive meaning, e. g. a broken glass, a caged bird. Participle II of intransitive verbs has no passive meaning; it is used only in compound tense-forms and has no independent function in the sentence unless it belongs to a verb which denotes passing into a new state, e. g. a withered flower, a faded leaf, a grown up boy, a retired officer.

§ 7. The functions of Participle I in the sentence. Participle I may have different syntactic functions.

1. Participle I as an attribute.

Participle I Indefinite Active can be used as an attribute; in this function it corresponds to the Russian действительное причастие.

I reached for a cigarette with trembling hands, and lit it.

Дрожащими руками я потянулся за сигаретой и зажег ее.

We admired the stars twinkling in the sky.

Мы любовались звездами, мерцавшими на небе.

In some cases Participle I in the function of an attribute is rendered in Russian by an attributive clause.  

They stumbled on the snow turning to icy water.

Они оступились на снегу, который превращался в ледяную воду.

In the function of an attribute Participle I can be in pre-position and in post-position, i. e. it can precede the noun it modifies and follow it.

Participle I Indefinite Passive is very seldom used as an attribute.

There was one line being laid out to within a few blocks of his new home... which interested him greatly. (Dreiser)

Его очень интересовала линия, которую прокладывали в нескольких кварталах от его нового дома. 

Participle I Perfect Active and Passive is not used attributively. The Russian действительное причастие прошедшего времени expressing priority (in the function of an attribute) is rendered in English by an attributive clause.

Татьяна, с великим равнодушием переносившая до того мгновения все превратности своей жизни, тут, однако, не вытерпела, прослезилась. (Тургенев)

Tatyana, who had until that moment borne all the ups and downs of her life with great indifference, broke down, however, on this and burst into tears.

Бульба повел сыновей своих в светлицу, откуда проворно выбежали две красивые девки-прислужницы, прибиравшие комнату. (Гоголь)

Bulba bade his sons follow him into the little guest-chamber, whence two pretty serving-wenches, who had been arranging the room, ran out.

In many cases an attribute expressed by Participle I is detached, i. e. it acquires a certain independence in the sentence; the connection between the attribute and the word it modifies is loose. A detached attribute is usually separated by a comma.

It was the entrance to a large family vault, extending under the north aisle. (Hardy)

Это был вход в большой фамильный склеп, простиравшийся под северным приделом храма.

2. Participle I as an adverbial modifier.

All the forms of Participle I may be used as an adverbial modifier. Participle I Indefinite expresses an action simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb and corresponds to the Russian деепричастиенесовершенного вида; Participle I Perfect expresses an action prior to the action expressed by the finite verb and corresponds to the Russian деепричастие совершенного вида. In some cases Participle I in the function of an adverbial modifier is rendered in Russian by an adverbial clause. Participle I can be an adverbial modifier:

a) of time.

I know we shall break our necks one night walking across the field.

Я знаю, однажды ночью мы свернем себе шею, шагая через это поле.

Drinking tea, he looked at me over his cup.

Он смотрел на меня поверх своей чашки, когда пил чай.

Having closed the door behind him, Sam sat beside the fire.

As has already been stated, with some verbs of sense perception and motion, such as to see, to hear, to come, to arrive, to enter, to seize, to look out, to turn and some others, Participle I Indefinite is used even when priority is meant. In Russian деепричастие совершенного вида is used in such cases.

Seeing me, he gave a start.

Увидев меня, он вздрогнул.

Seizing ink and writing paper, she began to write... (Galsworthy)

Схватив чернила и бумагу, она начала писать.

Turning slowly she went to her room. (Eliot)

Медленно повернувшись, она пошла в свою комнату.

If the action, expressed by Participle I Indefinite Active is simultaneous with the action, expressed by the finite verb, the conjunction when or while is often used.

He continued to speak while walking down the path.

Спускаясь вниз по тропе, он продолжал говорить.

Often, when boasting of his deceits, he sounded childlike.

Часто, хвастаясь своими обманами, он казался ребенком.

Note. Participle I Indefinite of the verb to be is not used as an adverbial modifier of time. Clauses of the type Когда он был ребенком..., Когда он был в Ленинграде... may be translated When a boy..., When he was a boy.... When in Leningrad..., When he was in Leningrad...

b) of cause.

Finding him so very friendly and companionable,... I asked for the pen and paper to write to Peggotty. (Dickens)

Найдя его таким дружелюбным и компанейским, я попросил перо и бумагу, чтобы написать Пеготти.

Seeing their uneasiness, Mrs. Norris softened and smiled.

Видя их неловкость, Миссис Норрис смягчилась и улыбнулась.

с) of manner and attendant circumstances.

In this function Participle I Indefinite is mostly used.

They walked by the lake holding hands.

Они шли по берегу озера, держась за руки.

Little bare-legged children ran about him, playing on the grass.

Маленькие босоногие дети бегали вокруг него, играя на траве.

It is not always easy to discriminate between an adverbial modifier of manner and an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances.

He has been in three revolutions fighting on the barricades. (Shaw)

Он принимал участие, в трех революциях, сражаясь на баррикадах.

d) of comparison.

In this function Participle l is introduced by the conjunctions as if or as though.                

Through the door in the hall... he called «Hssst!» several times, as though assisting the cat’s departure. (Galsworthy)

Через дверь в коридор он крикнул «Брысь!» несколько раз, как будто помогая коту выйти.

This was said as if thinking aloud.

Это было сказано, как будто он думал вслух.

3. Participle I as a predicative.

 In this function Participle I is used but seldom; it is usually rendered in Russian by an adjective.

The effect of her words was terrifying.

Впечатление, произведенное ее словами, было страшно.

The whole damned day had been humiliating. (Priestley)

Весь этот ужасный день был унизительным.

4. Participle I aspart of a complex object.

He found her sitting at the breakfast table.

Он обнаружил, что она сидит за столом.

He saw Bosinney watching her and smiling to himself. (Galsworthy)

Он видел, что Босини наблюдает за ней и улыбается сам себе.

5. Participle I as part of a compound verbal predicate.

Presently other footsteps were heard crossing the room below.   

Вскоре они услышали, что через комнату вниз прошел еще кто-то.

   Participle I in this function is also used after a number of verbs denoting motion or position: to come, to go, to lie, to sit, to stand:

They often go fishing these days.

The children came running.

6. Participial phrase as parenthesis. Here we always find a participial phrase; a single participle is not used in this function.

Generally speaking, I don't like boys. (Dickens)

Вообще говоря, я не люблю мальчиков.

Judging by appearances, Mr. Bowmore looked like a man prematurely wasted and worn by the dares of a troubled life. (Collins)

Судя по внешности, мистер Баумор был человек преждевременно состарившийся и измученный тяготами жизни.

§ 8. The functions of Participle II in the sentence.

1. Participle ll as an attribute. When used as an attribute Participle II of transitive verbs corresponds to the Russian страдательное причастие or действительное причастие of some verbs ending in -ся, e. g. a broken chair (сломанный стул), a broken cup (разбитая чашка), a newspaper published in Moscow (газета, издаваемая в Москве), the problem discussed at the meeting (вопрос, обсуждавшийся на собрании).

Participle II, as well as Participle I, сал be used in pre-position (without any accompanying words) and in post-position (with one or more accompanying words).

In the building, lighted windows were shining here and there.

В здании тут и там виднелись освещенные окна.

A man in torn and dusty clothes was making his way towards

the boat.

Человек в рваной и пыльной одежде направлялся к лодке.

Participle II of intransitive verbs, which denote passing into a new state, corresponds to the Russian действительное причастие or to an adjective. However, only in a few cases Participle II of an intransitive verb may be used attributively, mostly Participle II of the verbs to fade, to wither, to retire, to fall, to vanish, e. g. faded leaves (увядшие листья), a withered flower (засохший цветок), a retired colonel (отставной полковник), a fallen star (упавшая звезда), the vanished jewels (пропавшие драгоценности).

An attribute expressed by Participle II may be detached; in this case it often has an additional meaning of an adverbial modifier:                                                    

The housekeeper had come out of her room, attracted by the violent ringing of the bell. (Conan Doyle)

Экономка вышла из своей комнаты, привлеченная неистовым звоном колокольчика.

Crushed at first by his imprisonment, he had soon found a dull relief in it. (Dickens)     

Поначалу сломленный своим пребыванием в тюрьме, он вскоре    нашел в этом какое-то тупое облегчение.  

2. Participle II as an adverbial modifier.

In this function Participle II is preceded by the conjunctions when, while, if, as if, as though, though, etc. It is generally rendered in Russian by an adverbial clause. Participle II can be an adverbial modifier:

a) of time.

She is a terror when roused.

Когда она злая, она ужасна.

When dressed, I sat a long time by the window.

Одевшись, я долгое время сидел у окна.

b) of condition.

Nobody spoke unless spoken to. (Dickens)

Никто не говорил, если к нему не обращались.

If posted now, the letter can reach John till Monday.

Если отправить письмо сейчас, то Джон получит его в понедельник.

с) of comparison.

«Does he know it?» said David, as though surprised.

“Он знает об этом?” – сказал Дэвид как будтоудивленно.

d) of concession.                          -             '

Her spirit, though crushed, wasn’t broken.

Дух ее, хотя и подавленный, не был сломлен.

Note. Other grammarians' view of the analysis of such word-groups as. when questioned..., if discovered..., as if torn..., though crushed... is different. They consider such word-groups to be elliptical clauses and not participial phrases.

3. Participle II as predicative.

The rose is faded.

Роза увяла.

In spite of himself, Val was impressed. (Galsworthy)

На Вэла это произвело впечатление, помимо его воли.

The inner gate was locked, and the lodge closed. (Dickens)

Внутренние ворота были заперты, и помещение привратника закрыто.

4. Participle II as part of a complex object.

She has found me unaltered; but I have found her changed. (Collins)

Она нашла, что я ничуть не переменился, а я нашел, что oнa изменилась.

§ 9. Predicative constructions with the Participle.

In Modern English we find the following predicative constructions with the Participle:

1) the Objective Participial Construction;

2) the Subjective Participial Construction;

3) the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction;

4) the Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction.

§ 10. The Objective Participial Construction.

The Objective Participial Construction is a construction in which the participle is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case.

He foundher sitting at the breakfast-table. (Hardy)

Он обнаружил, что она сидит за столом для завтрака.

The participle sitting is in predicate relation to the pronoun her, which denotes the doer of the action expressed by the participle.

In the Objective Participial Construction Participle I Indefinite Active or Participle II is used. In the sentence this construction has the function of a complex object. It usually corresponds to a subordinate object clause in Russian. The Objective Participial Construction may be found:

a) after verbs denoting sense perception, such as to see, to hear, to feel, to find, etc.

Then he looked out of the window and saw clouds gathering.

Потом он выглянул из окна и увидел, что собираются тучи.

On arriving at the cottage she foundthe door locked.

Когда она приехала в коттедж, она обнаружила, что дверь заперта.

I heard my wife coming... (Conan Doyle)

Я слышал, как приехала моя жена.

In the dark the old man could feel themorning coming. (Hemingway)

В темноте старик чувствовал, что приближается утро.

b) after some verbs of mental activity such as to consider, to understand.                                                   

I consider myself engaged to Herr Klesmer. (Eliot)

Я считаю себя помолвленной с господином Клесмером. 

с) after verbs denoting wish, such as to want, to wish, to desire. In this case only Participle II is used.

«I want it proved», he roared.

«Я хочу, чтобы это доказали», взревел он.

I want this typed, if you please. (Coppard)

Я хочу, чтобы это отпечатали, пожалуйста.

d) after the verbs to have and to get. After these verbs only Participle II is used.  This construction either expresses that something is done by someone else for the benefit of the person denoted by the subject of the sentence, or has the meaning of to experience, to witness.

I had my coat altered.

Я переделала пальто (т. е. поручила кому-то переделать его).

She has her dresses made here.

Ей шьют платья здесь. 

Не ... had several bottles of wine brought ... (Dreiser)      

Ему ... принесли несколько бутылок вина.

Get this prescription made at the chemist’s.

Закажите это лекарство в аптеке.

In interrogative and negative sentences the auxiliary verb to do is used:

Why don't you have your hair waved? (Du Maurier)

Почему вы не завьетесь (не сделаете завивку)?

Occasionally the meaning of the construction is different: it may show that the person denoted by the subject of the sentence experiences the action expressed by the participle.

I had my window broken yesterday.

Вчера мне разбили окно.

I don’t intend to have my profession compromised.

Я не позволю, чтобы мою профессию компрометировали.

It takes a long time to write a novel. And then you have to get

It published.

Требуется немало времени, чтобы написать роман. А потом его нужно еще опубликовать.

§11. The Subjective Participial Construction. The Subjective Participial Construction is a construction in which the participle (mostly Participle l) is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case, which is the subject of the sentence.

In rendering this construction in Russian a complex sentence is generally used; the principal clause is of the type which in Russian syntax is called 'indefinite personal' (неопределенно-личное предложение). 

The peculiarity of this construction is that it does not serve as one part of the sentence: one of its component parts has the function of the subject, the other forms part of a compound verbal predicate.

This construction is chiefly used after verbs of sense perception.

A minute later he was seen engaged in a lively conversation.

Минуту спустя его видели уже оживленно беседующим.

The carriage was heard rolling up the gravel-walk. (Ch.Bronte)

Слышно было, как экипаж подъезжает по дорожке, посыпанной гравием.

In this construction the relation between the carriage and rolling up is that of secondary subject and secondary predicate. The whole construction the carriage... rolling up is the complex subject to the predicate was heard.

§12. The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction.

The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction is a construction in which the participle stands in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case.

... My eyes being very heavy, I lay down again and slept. (Dickens)

... Так как глаза мои закрывались, я снова лег и уснул.

Although the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction is formally independent of the sentence, it is logically connected with it, serving as an adverbial modifier to the predicate.

This construction is chiefly used in literary style.

In the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction Participle I (in all its forms) or Participle II is used. This construction is generally rendered in Russian by means of an adverbial clause. It is used in the function of an adverbial modifier. It can be an adverbial modifier:

a) of time.

This being done, they set off with light hearts. (Irving)

Когда с этим было покончено, они отправились в путь с легким сердцем.

b) of cause.

Martin had to carry his water from the kitchen, there being no tap in the room. (London)

Мартину пришлось нести воду из кухни, так как в комнате не было крана.

It being now pretty late, we took our candles and went up-

stairs. (Dickens)

Так как было довольно поздно, мы взяли свечи и пошли наверх.

с) of attendant circumstances.

In this function the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction is mostly placed at the end of the sentence. In rendering it in Russian a coordinate clause оr деепричастный оборот is used.

Andrew lay with closed eyes, his head resting near her. (Cronin)

Эндрю лежал с закрытыми глазами, голова его покоилась рядом с нею.

d) of condition (rare).

In this function the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction is almost exclusively used with the participles permitting and failing,             

Weather (time, circumstances) permitting, we shall start tomorrow. Если погода (время, обстоятельства) позволит, мы поедем завтра.

Conciliation failing, force remains; but force failing, no further hope of conciliation is left.

Если не удается достигнуть примирения, приходится применить силу; но если сила не помогает, не остается никакой надежды на примирение.

The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction very often occurs in fiction and scientific literature; the use of this construction in colloquial English is rare.

§ 13. The Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction. The Absolute Participial Construction may be introduced by the preposition with and is then called the Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction. It is in most cases used in the function of an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances.         

This construction is rendered in Russian by a coordinate clause or деепричастный оборот.  

They were walking on again, with Hugh calmly drawing at his pipe. (Lindsay)                                          

Они снова шли вперед; Хью спокойно покуривал свою трубку.

 The daughter sat quite silent and still, with her eyes fixed on the ground. (Dickens)                                       

 Дочь сидела молча и неподвижно, опустив глаза в землю.     

§ 14. Absolute constructions without a participle.

There are two types of absolute constructions in which we find no participle. The second element of the construction is an adjective, a prepositional phrase, or an adverb.

1. The Nominative Absolute Construction. It is used in the function of an adverbial modifier of time or attendant circumstances. In the function of an adverbial modifier of time this construction is rendered in Russian by an adverbial clause.

Breakfast over, he went to his counting house. (Ch. Bronte)

Когда кончили завтракать, он пошел в свою контору.

In the function of an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances the Nominative Absolute Construction is rendered either by a coordinate clause, деепричастный оборот, or a noun (pronoun) with the preposition c.

The girl sat quite silent and still, her eyes fixed on the floor.

Девушка сидела молча и неподвижно, глаза ее были устремлены на пол.

They were walking on again, John calmly drawing at his pipe.

И снова они пошли, Джон спокойно курил свою трубку.

Mind the difference between the meaning of the following constructions: The lesson (concert, lecture) over... and The lesson (concert, lecture) being over... The lesson over has a temporal meaning, whereas the lesson being over has as a rule a causal meaning.

2. The Prepositional Absolute Construction. It is introduced by the preposition with and is mostly used in the function of an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances. In rendering this construction in Russian a coordinate clause or деепричастный оборот is used.

He was slowly walking in the direction of the lake, with his dog following him.

Он медленно шел по направлению к озеру, за ним следовала его собака.

The child ran to her father with her arms outstretched.

Ребенок бежал к отцу, протягивая руки.

The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction and the Nominative Absolute Construction are as a rule separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma or a semicolon.

THE GERUND

§ 15. The gerund developed from the verbal noun, which in course of time became verbalized preserving at the same time its nominal character. In fact, the Gerund behaves like a noun, though it can take an object like a verb. The gerund is formed by adding the suffix -ing to the stem of the verb, and coincides in form with Participle I.

 § 16. The double nature of the gerund.

The gerund has nominal and verbal properties. The nominal characteristics оf the gerund are as follows.

1. The gerund can perform the function of subject, object and predicative.

Crossing the river was a hard task. (subject)

She enjoyed sitting in the sun. (direct object)

Deciding is acting. (predicative)

2. The gerund can be preceded by a preposition.

The rain showed no sign of stopping.

I am relieved at being left alone.

3. Like a noun the gerund can be modified by a noun in the possessive case or by a possessive pronoun.

His getting divorced surprised everybody.

She insisted on his taking a cup of tea with the family.

The verbal characteristics of the gerund are the same as those of the participle:

1. The gerund of transitive verbs can take a direct object.

I had now made good progress in understanding and speaking their language. (Swift)

2. The gerund can be modified by an adverb. 

He began snapping the pebbles carefully into the stream.   

She burst out crying bitterly. (Hardy)

3. The gerund has tense distinctions; the gerund of transitive verbs has also voice distinctions. The forms of the gerund in Modern English are as follows:

Indefinite:         doing (Active Voice), being done (Passive Voice)

Perfect:             having done (Active), having been done (Passive)

There is no gerund in Russian and the English gerund is rendered in Russian in different ways:

a) by a noun:                            .

Dancing had not begun yet... (Mansfield)

Танцы еще не начались.

b) by an infinitive:

She enjoyed sitting in the sun.

Ей очень нравилось сидеть на солнце.

с) by деепричастие.

Jolyon stood a moment without speaking. (Galsworthy)

Джолион стоял мгновение,не говоря ни слова.

d) by a subordinate clause.

He regretted now having come. (Galsworthy)

Теперь он сожалел, что пришел.

It should be noted that though the active forms of the gerund may be rendered in different ways, the passive forms are nearly always rendered by a clause.                   

I felt relieved at being left alone.

Я почувствовал облегчение от того, что меня оставили в покое.

§ 17.The tense distinctions of the gerund.

The tense distinctions of the gerund, like those of the participle, are not absolute but relative.

1. The Indefinite Gerund Active and Passive denotes an action simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb; depending on the tense form of the finite verb it may refer to the present, past, or future.

I was tired of reading and dead sleepy.

Я устал от чтения и ужасно хотел спать.

Gwendolen will not rest without having the world at her feet. (Eliot)

Гвендолен не успокоится, пока весь мир не будет у ее ног.

No one could pass in or out without being seen. (Dickens)

Никто не мог ни войти, ни выйти так, чтобы его не видели.

2. The Perfect Gerund denotes an action prior to that of the finite verb.                                          He didn’t remember everhaving seen her in black.

Он не помнил, видел ли он когда-нибудь ее в черном.

She denies having spoken with him.

Она отрицает, что говорила с ним.

However, the Perfect Gerund does not always express a prior action; in some cases we find an Indefinite Gerund. This occurs after the verbs to remember, to excuse, to forgive, to thank and after the prepositions on (upon), after and without.

I paused outside the door on hearing my mother’s voice.

Услышав голос матери, я помедлил перед дверью.

Don’t you remember your coming to meet me?

Разве ты не помнишь, как приходил встречать меня?

The Perfect Gerund may also be used after the above mentioned verbs and prepositions.

He did not remember having been in that room. (Galsworthy)

Он не помнил, чтобы когда-нибудь был в этой комнате.

§18. The voice distinctions of the gerund.

The gerund of transitive verbs has special forms for the active and the passive voice.

He liked neither reading aloud nor being read aloud to. (Maugham)                                                

Он не любил ни читать вслух, ни слушать чтение.

It is to be observed that after the verbs to want, to need, to deserve, to require and the adjective worth the gerund is used in the active form, though it is passive in meaning.

The car needs repairing.

Машину нужно отремонтировать.

The house wants painting.

Дом нужно покрасить.

We saw all the plays that were worth seeing.

Мы посмотрели все пьесы, которые стоило посмотреть.

§ 19.Predicative constructions with the gerund. Like all the verbals the gerund can form predicative constructions, i. e, constructions in which the verbal element expressed by the gerund is in predicate relation to the nominal element expressed by a noun or pronoun.

I don't like your going off without any money. (Maltz)

Мне не нравится, что вы уходите без денег.

Here the gerund going off is in predicate relation to the pronoun your, which denotes the doer of the action expressed by the gerund.

The nominal element of the construction can be expressed in different ways.

1. If it denotes a living being it may be expressed:

a) by a noun in the genitive case or by a possessive pronoun.

That would prevent people’s noticing.

Тогда люди не заметят.

Occasionally examples are found where the nominal element of the construction is expressed by a pronoun in the objective case.

I hope you will forgive me disturbing you. (Du Maurier)

Надеюсь, вы простите меня за то, что я вас побеспокоил.

I remember you coming and taking her out once.

Я помню, как однажды вы пришли и взяли ее на прогулку.

There are cases when the nominal element of the construction, though denoting a living being, cannot be expressed by a noun in the possessive case, but only by a noun in the common case, namely when it consists of two or more nouns or when it is a noun modified by an attribute in post-position.

I object to Mary and Jane going out on such a windy day.

Я против того, чтобы Мэри и Джейн выходили в такую ветреную погоду.

He felt no uneasiness now in the thought of the brother and sister being alone together. (Eliot)

Его теперь не смущала мысль о том, что брат и сестра остались вдвоем.     

Did you ever hear of a man of sense rejecting such an offer? Слышали ли вы когда-нибудь, чтобы разумный человек отказался от такого предложения?

2. If the nominal element denotes a lifeless thing, it is expressed by a noun in the common case (such nouns, as a rule are not used in the genitive case) or by a possessive pronoun.

Her thoughts were interrupted at last, by the door opening gently.

Мысли ее наконец были прерваны тем, что дверь тихонько открылась.

3. The nominal element of the construction can also be expressed by a pronoun, which has no case distinctions, such as all, this, that, both, each, something.

I insist on both of them coming in time.

Я требую, чтобы они оба пришли вовремя.

The play isn’t so bad but I can’t imagine anyone wanting to see it three times.

Пьеса не такая уж плохая, но не могу представить, чтобы кто-либо захотел посмотреть ее трижды.

Note. Some grammarians recognize the existence of two separate constructions: the gerundial construction (a construction whose nominal element is expressed by a noun in the genitive case or by a possessive pronoun) and a construction with a half gerund (a construction whose nominal element is expressed by a noun in the common case, a pronoun in the objective case, or a pronoun which has no case distinctions).

A gerundial construction is nearly always rendered in Russian by a subordinate clause, generally introduced by то, что; тем, что; как, etc.

§ 21. The use of the gerund.

In Modern English the gerund is widely used and often competes with the infinitive.

In the following cases only the gerund is used:

1. With the verbs and verbal phrases: to avoid, to burst out, to deny, to enjoy, to excuse, to fancy (in imperative sentences as an exclamation of surprise), to finish, to forgive, to give up, to go on, to keep (on), to leave off, to mind (in negative and interrogative sentences), to postpone, to put off, cannot help and some others.

He avoided looking at Savina. (Wilson).

Он избегал смотреть на Сабину.

...she burst out crying. (Collins)

Она расплакалась.

She denied having been at the station that evening. (Gaskell)

Она отрицала, что была в тот вечер на станции.

... he enjoyed thinking of her as his future wife. (Eliot)

... ему доставляло удовольствие думать о ней как о своей будущей жене.

Excuse my leaving you in the dark a moment. (Dickens)

Извините, что я на минуту оставлю вас в темноте.

Fancy finding you here at such an hour! (Hardy)

Я даже и представить себе не мог, что застану вас здесь в такое время!

Forgive my speaking plainly. (Hardy)

Простите, что я говорю так прямо.

Theywent on talking. (Hardy)

Они продолжали разговаривать.  

Doctor keeps coming and having a look at me. (Priestley)

Доктор продолжает (не перестает) навещать меня и осматривать.  

I haveleft off shooting. (Eliot)

Я перестал охотиться.

Do you mind my asking you one or two more questions? (Collins)

Вы ничего не имеете против того, чтобы я задал вам еще один-два вопроса?

Would you mind waiting a week or two? (Dreiser)

Вы ничего не имеете против того, чтобы подождать недельку-другую?

I don't mind going and seeing her. (Hardy)

Я ничего не имею против того, чтобы навестить ее.

She couldn't help smiling. (Mansfield)

Она не могла не улыбнуться.

2. With the following verbs and verbal phrases used with a preposition: to accuse of, to agree to, to approve of, to complain of, to depend on, to feel like, to insist on, to look like, to object to, to persist in, to prevent from, to rely on, to speak of, to succeed in, to suspect of, to thank for, to think of, to give up the idea of, to look forward to, not to like the idea of, to miss an (the) opportunity of and some others.

They accuse me of having dealt with the Germans. (Heym)

Меня обвиняют в том, что я имел дело с немцами.

You did not approve of my playing at roulette. (Eliot)

Вы не одобряли того, что я играла в рулетку.

All the happiness of my life depends on your loving me. (Eliot)

Все счастье моей жизни зависит от того, полюбите ли вы меня.

I don't feel like going out. (Wilson)

Мне не хочется выходить.

I feel like talking. (Priestley)

Мне хочется поговорить.

It looks like raining.

Похоже, что будет дождь.

3. With the following predicative word-groups (with or without a preposition):

to be aware of, to be busy with, to be capable of, to be fond of, to be guilty of, to be indignant at, to be pleased (displeased) at, to be proud of, to be sure of, to be surprised (astonished) at, to be worth (while), and some others.

He was aware of Becky’shaving got married.

Он знал, что Бекки вышла замуж.

I felt physically incapable of remaining still in any one place and tоtаllу incapable of speaking to any one human being. (Collins)

Я чувствовал, что я физически не в состоянии оставаться на одном месте и морально не в состоянии говорить с кем бы то ни было.

I am very fond of being looked at. (Wilde)            

Я очень люблю, когда на меня смотрят.

...she was not pleased at my coming. (Hichens)     

... она была недовольна, что я пришел.

... nobody knows better than I do that she is proud of being so pretty. 

...уж  я-то знаю: она гордится тем, что она такая хорошенькая.                                                   

Are you quite sure of those words referring to my mother? (Collins)

Вы совершенно уверены, что эти слова относятся к моей матери? The bridal party was worth seeing. (Eliot)

Свадьбу стоило посмотреть.

§ 22. The functions of the gerund in the sentence.

The gerund may be used in various syntactic functions. A single gerund occurs but seldom. In most cases we find a gerundial phrase or a gerundial construction.

1. The gerund as a subject.

Avoiding difficulties isn’t my method. (Snow)

Избегать трудности – это не мой метод.

Talking mends no holes. (proverb)

Разговоры не помогают в беде.

When the subject of the sentence is a gerundial phrase, the subject is sometimes placed after the predicate. Then the sentence begins with the anticipatory it:

It was great meeting you here.

Было замечательно встретить вас здесь.

It’s no good worrying.

Не стоит беспокоиться.

2. The gerund as a predicative.

Deciding is acting.

Принять решение– значит действовать.

Her aim is mastering English.

Ее цель– овладеть английским.

3. The gerund as part of a compound verbal predicate.

a) With verbs and verbal phrases denoting modality the gerund forms part of a compound verbal modal predicate (to intend, to try, to attempt, can’t help):

We intend going to Switzerland, and climbing Mount Blanc. (Ch. Bronte)

Мы хотим поехать в Швейцарию и подняться на Монблан.

Joseph could not help admiring the man. (Heym)

Джозеф не мог не восхищаться этим человеком.

b) With verbs denoting the beginning, the duration, or the end of an action, the gerund forms part of a compound verbal aspect predicate. 

She began sobbing and weeping. (Dickens)

In the night it started raining. (Hemingway)

4. The gerund as an object.

The gerund may be used as a direct object and as a prepositional indirect object.

a) after the verbs associated only with the gerund– to avoid, to delay, to put off, to postpone, to mind (in interrogative and negative sentences), to excuse, to fancy, to want (= to need), to require, to need – the gerund is found in the function of a direct object: 

Avoid making mistakes.

Excuse my interrupting you.

Fancy having to go back tonight.

The house wanted painting.

b) we find the gerund as a direct object after the adjectives like, busy and worth:

She was busy writing.

We saw all the plays worth seeing.

I felt like laughing.

c) the gerund occurs as a direct object after the verbs associated both with the infinitive and the gerund (to neglect, to like, to dislike, to hate, to prefer, to enjoy etc.):

She likes sitting in the sun.

She preferred staying at home.

The gerund is used as a prepositional object:

a)  after phrasal verbs and verb phrases used with a preposition (to think of, to insist on, to rely on, to miss the opportunity of, to like the idea of etc.):

They talked ofgoing somewhere else.

Они говорили о том, чтобы поехать куда-нибудь еще.

I really thank you for taking all this trouble.

Я сердечно благодарю вас за то, что вы взяли на себя все эти хлопоты.

b) after adjectives used predicatively (fond of, tired of, proud of, ignorant of, used to):

He was never tired of talking about her, and I was never tired of hearing.

Он никогда не уставал говорить о ней, а я никогда не уставал слушать.

I am well used to travelling.

Я вполне привык путешествовать.

Predicative constructions with the gerund form a complex object as they consist of two distinct elements, nominal and verbal.

Perhaps you wouldn't mind Richard's coming in? (Dickens) (COMPLEX OBJECT).

Может быть, вы не будете возражать против того, чтобы вошел Ричард?

Aunt Augusta won't quite approve of your being here. (Wilde) (PREPOSITIONAL COMPLEX OBJECT)

Тетя Августа будет не очень довольна тем, что вы здесь.

5. The gerund as an attribute.

In this function the gerund is always preceded by a preposition, mostly the preposition of.

Не was born with the gift of winning hearts. (Gaskell)

Он родился с даром покорять сердца.

...there's no chance of their getting married for years. (Galsworthy)

... нет никакой надежды на то, что они смогут скоро пожениться. Presently there was the sound of the car being brought to the door.

Вскоре послышался шум автомобиля, который подъезжал к двери.

6. The gerund as an adverbial modifier.

In this function the gerund is always preceded by a preposition. It is used in the function of an adverbial modifier of time, manner, attendant circumstances, cause, condition, purpose and concession; the most common functions are those of adverbial modifiers of time, manner, and attendant circumstances.

a) As an adverbial modifier of time the gerund is preceded by the prepositions after, before, on (upon), in оr at.

On arriving at the garden entrance, he stopped to look at the view.

Подойдя к входу в сад, он остановился, чтобы полюбоваться видом.

After talking to us for a moment, he left.

Поговорив немного с нами, он ушел.

 b) As an adverbial modifier of manner the gerund is used with the prepositions by or in.

She startled her father by bursting into tears. (Gaskell)

Она напугала своего отца тем, что расплакалась.

The day was spent in packing. (Du Maurier)

День прошел за упаковкой вещей.

с) As an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances the gerund is preceded by the preposition without.

She was not brilliant, not active, but rather peaceful without knowing it. (Dreiser)

Это была женщина не блестящая, не энергичная, но она была очень спокойна, сама того не зная.

d) As an adverbial modifier of purpose, the gerund is chiefly used with the preposition for.

... one side of the gallery was used for dancing. (Eliot)

... одна сторона галереи использовалась для танцев.

е) As an adverbial modifier of condition the gerund is preceded by the preposition without.

He has no right to come bothering you and papa without being invited. (Shaw)

Он не имеет права приходить и беспокоить вас и отца, если его не приглашают.

f) As an adverbial modifier of cause the gerund is used with the prepositions for, for fear of, owing to.

I feel the better myself for having spent a good deal of my time abroad. (Eliot)

Я чувствую себя лучше оттого, что долго прожил за границей.

I dared not attend the funeral for fear of making a fool of myself. (Coppard)

Я не смел присутствовать на похоронах, так как боялся поставить себя в глупое положение.

g) As an adverbial modifier of concession the gerund is preceded by the preposition in spite of.

In spite of being busy, he did all he could to help her.

Note. The Russian не + деепричастие may correspond to the English without + Gerund or no + Participle. It usually corresponds to no + Participle if it is used in the function of an adverbial modifier of cause.

He зная адреса мисс Бетси, Давид не мог ей написать.

Not knowing Miss Betsy’s address, David could not write to her. (Dickens) (cause)

If не + деепричастие is used in the function of adverbial modifiers of attendant circumstances and of condition, it generally corresponds to without + Gerund.

Давид уехал из Лондона, никому ничего не сказав.

David left London without telling anybody about it. (Dickens) (attendant circumstances)

Мальчики не могли уходить из Салем-Хауса, не спросив разрешения.

The boys could not leave Salem Housewithout asking for permission. (Dickens) (condition)

§ 23.The gerund and the infinitive.

With a number of verbs and word-groups both the Gerund and the Infinitive may be used. The most important of them are: to be afraid,  to begin, to cease, to continue, can (cannot) afford, cannot bear, to dread, to fear, to forget, to hate, to intend, to like (dislike), to neglect, to prefer, to propose, to remember, to recollect, to start, to stop.

The young man began turning over the pages of a book. (Priestley)

At length she began to speak softly. (Eliot)

She continued standing near the piano. (Eliot)

She continued to look at him... (Dickens)

It is sometimes possible to find a reason for the use of a given form. The Gerund is of a more general, abstract character than the Infinitive. 

The child was not afraid of remaining alone, but he was afraid to remainalone on such a stormy night.

Ребёнок (вообще) не боялся оставаться один, но он боялся остаться один в такую бурную ночь.

I was always afraid of losing his goodwill. (Llewellyn)

Я всегда боялся потерять его расположение.

Don't forget shutting the windows when you leave home.

He забывайте закрывать окна, уходя из дому.

Don't forgetto shut the window when you leave home, it is very windy today.

He забудьте закрыть окно, когда будете уходить из дому; сегодня очень ветрено.

I don't like interrupting people.

Я не люблю отрывать людей от дела.

I don't like to interrupt him, he seems very busy.

Мне не хочется мешать ему, он, кажется, очень занят.

With the verb to remember the Infinitive usually refers to the future, and the Gerund to the past.

I remember seeing the book in many bookshops.

Я помню, что видел эту книгу во многих магазинах.

Remember to buy the book.

He забудьте купить эту книгу.

With the verb to stop the Infinitive and the Gerund have different syntactical functions. The Gerund forms part of a compound verbal aspect predicate.

They stopped talking when he came in. (Galsworthy)          

Когда он вошел, они перестали говорить.

The Infinitive has the function of an adverbial modifier of purpose.                                                               

She stopped to exchange a few words with a neighbour. (Dickens)

Она остановилась, чтобы поболтать с соседкой.

§ 24. The gerund and the participle.

In most cases the differentiation between the Gerund and the Participle does not present any difficulty.