The functions of ordinal numerals in a sentence.

Subordinating conjunctions generally join a subordinate or dependent clause to a principal clause (a), or adverbial modifiers to the predicate in a simple sentence (b), or sometimes they join homogeneous parts (c).

(a) When he was eight, he got work in another mill. (London.)

(b) He shook his head a bit as if in wonder that he had permit­ted himself to be caught in such crosscurrents. (Wilson)

   (c) My look or something else must have struck her as offensive, for she spoke with extreme,though suppressed irritation. (Ch. Bronte.)

Coordinating conjunctions.

The meaning of conjunctions is closely connected with the rela­tions they express. Thus the classes of coordinating conjunctions according to their meaning correspond to different types of com­pound sentences. There are four different kinds of coordinating conjunctions.

 1. Copulative conjunctions: and, nor, as well as, both ... and, not only ...but (also), neither... nor. Copulative conjunctions chiefly denote that one statement or fact is simply added to another (nor and neither express that relation in the negative sense).

There was a scent of honey from the lime trees in flower,andin the sky the blue was beautiful, with a few white clouds. (Gals­worthy)

His whole face was colourless rock; his eye wasboth sparkandflint. (Ch. Bronte)

I do not know what they knew of the things happening beyond the hill,nor do I know if the silent houses I passed on my way were sleeping securely... (Wells)

...but it made him indeed suspect that she could give as well as receive; and she gave him nothing. (Galsworthy)

 ...the newspapers discussed the play for a whole fortnightnot only in the ordinary theatrical notices and criticisms,but in leading articles and letters. (Shaw)

He went on as a statue would: that is, heneither spokenormoved. (Ch. Bronte)

2. Disjunctive conjunctions: or, either... or, or else, else.

Disjunctive conjunctions offer some choice between one state­ment and another.

The majority of the inhabitants had escaped, I suppose, by way of the Old Worning road... or they had hidden. (Wells)

 ... either his furlough was up, or he dreaded to meet any witnesses of his Waterloo flight. (Thackeray)

He was compelled to think this thought, or else there would not be any use to strive, and he would have lain down and died. (London)

 “You go and fetch her down, Tom,” said Mr. Tulliver, rather sharply, his perspicacity or his fatherly fondness for Maggie making him suspect that the lad had been hard upon "the little un", else she would never have left his side... (Eliot)

3. Adversative conjunctions: but, while, whereas.

Adversative conjunctions show that one statement or fact is contrasted

with or set against another.

Fabermacher nodded in agreement, but his eyes glittered with silent triumph and contempt for the victory. (Wilson)

 His nerves had become blunted, numb, while his mind was filled with weird visions and delicious dreams. (London)

4. Causative-consecutive conjunctions: so, for.

 Causative-consecutive conjunctions denote consequence, result, or reason. By these conjunctions one statement or fact is inferred or proved from another.

He had gone some miles away, and was not expected home until late at night; so the landlady dispatched the same messenger in all haste for Mr. Pecksniff. (Dickens)

His eyes must have had in them something of George Forsyte's sardonic look;for her gloved hand crisped the folds of her frock, her eyebrows rose, her face went stony. (Galsworthy)

The conjunction for is a borderline case between a coordinating and a subordinating conjunction. When expressing cause it ap­proaches in its meaning the subordinating conjunctions as, because:

 There was moreover time to spare,for Fleur was to meet him at the Gallery at four o'clock, and it was yet half past two. (Galsworthy)

Coordinating conjunctions can be used both in compound and in simple sentences; the coordinating copulative conjunctions both... and, as well as are used only in simple sentences.

Then he shrugged in impatience and said frankly, "I don't know what came over me." "You knowas well as I do and that's why we're going away," Savina insisted steadily. (Wilson)

The use of the copulative conjunction and in simple sentences as well as in compound sentences is widely spread.

But as he did so, unexpectedly he paused,and raised his head. (Cronin)

The coordinating conjunctions neither... nor, or, either... or are more widely used in simple sentences than in complex sentences.

There was nothing remarkable about the size of the eyes. They wereneither largenor small. (London)

     ...in order to make a man or a boy covet a thing, it is only necessary to make the thing difficult to attain. (Twain)

     ...there was a slight smile on his lips that could have been either amusement or shy self-deprecation. (Wilson)

Some of the coordinating conjunctions are polysemantic. Thus the coordinating conjunction and may indicate different relations:

...there stood a white house within a walled garden,and in the pantry of this we found a store of food. (Wells) (copulative)

        You are nineteen, Jon,and I am seventy-two. How are we to understand each other in a matter like this, eh? (Galsworthy) (ADVERSATIVE)

When he read those books something happened to him,and he went out of doors again in passionate quest of a river. (Galsworthy) (CONSECUTIVE)

The conjunction or may have a disjunctive and an adversative meaning.

Happily it (a hackney-coach) brought them to the place where Jonas dwelt or the young ladies might have rather missed the point and cream of the jest. (Dickens) (adversative)

After that one would see, or more probably one would not. (Galsworthy) (disjunctive)

The causative-consecutive conjunction for may have a causative or a consecutive meaning:

He would have to be more careful than man had ever been, for the least thing would give it away and make her as wretched as himself almost. (Galsworthy) (causative)

 From the warmth of her embrace he probably divined that he had let the cat out of the bag, for he rode off at once on irony. (Galsworthy) (consecutive)

§ 5. Subordinating conjunctions.

Subordinating conjunctions may introduce subject clauses, object clauses, predicative clauses, adverbial clauses and attributive clauses.

Many of the subordinating conjunctions introduce different kinds of clauses. For instance that may introduce subject clauses, predi­cative clauses, object clauses, adverbial clauses of purpose and of result.

That Ruth had little faith in his power as a writer did not alter her nor diminish her in Martin's eyes. (London) (subject clause)

What I mean isthat you're the first man I ever met who's willing to admit out loud to a woman that he thinks she's better than he is. (Wilson) (predicative clause)

 He looked to the south and knewthat somewhere beyond those blue hills lay the Great Bear Lake. (London) (object clause)

 He walked into the Green Parkthat he might cross to Victoria. Station and take the Underground into the City. (Galsworthy) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF PURPOSE)

He bailed wildly at first; splashing himself and flinging the water so short a distancethat it ran back into the pool. (London) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF RESULT)

The conjunction if introduces object clauses and adverbial clauses of condition:

He was anxious to see if she had relapsed since the previous evening. (Dickens) (object clause)

If the man ran, he would run after him; but the man did not run. (London) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF CONDITION)

The conjunction as introduces adverbial clauses of time, of cause, and of comparison:

These were the thoughts of the man as he strove onward. (London) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF TIME)

As Jacob has made me captain, I must call the roll. (Dodge) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF CAUSE) 

 That day had decreased the distance between him and theship by three miles; the next, day by two—for he was crawling now as Bill had crawled. (London) (adverbial clause OF COMPARISON)

The conjunction while may express both coordination and subordination. It may be a coordinating adversative conjunction (in this case it is translated as тогда как; a) or a subordinating conjunction of time (in this case. it is translated as в то время как, пока).

Older men probably resented himwhile others of his own generation could feel so inadequate when comparing their talent to his... (Wilson) (COORDINATING CONJUNCTION) While skating along at full speed, they heard the cars from Amsterdam coming close behind them. (Dodge) (subordinating CONJUNCTION)

Subordinating conjunctions may also be used in simple sentences. They join adverbial modifiers to the predicate of the sentence. Conjunctions of comparison such as: as if, as though are frequently used in simple sentences.

He scowled at first; then, as if recollecting something, he said. … (Ch. Bronte)  

 He seemed faint and dizzy and put out his free hand while he reeled,as though seeking support against the air. (London)

The subordinating conjunctions though and if are also used in simple sentences:

Though alone, he was not lost. (London)

      Next, he sheered to the left, to escape the foot of the bed; butthis sheer, if too generous, brought him against the corner of the table. (London)

Subordinating conjunctions of time are rarely used in simple sentences. In that case they are mostly used with participles:

That she was one of those women—not too common in the Anglo-Saxon race — born to be loved and to love, whowhen not loving are not living, had certainly never even occurred to him. (Galsworthy)

Only rarely does a subordinating conjunction join homogeneous members:

He was gaythough tired.

                                                   Chapter XII

                                             THE PARTICLE

§ 1. The particle is a part of speech giving modal or emotional emphasis to other words or groups of words or clauses. A particle may join one part of the sentence to another (connecting particles). Particles have no independent function in the sentence.

§ 2. According to their meaning particles fall under the follow­ing main groups:

1. Limiting particles: only, just, but, alone, solely, merely, barely etc.

I only wanted to make you speak. (Shaw)

Just one question, Mrs. Dartie. Are you still fond of your husband? (Galsworthy)

Soames wasbut following in the footsteps of his father. (Galsworthy)

Her namealone was almost enough for one who was terribly susceptible to the charm of words. (Galsworthy)

 He had taken up with itsolely because he was starving. (London)

She (Ruth) thought she wasmerely interested in him (Martin) as an unusual type possessing various potential excellences, and she even felt philanthropic about it. (London)

 They were spreading notmerely on the surface, but within. (Galsworthy)

 Hebarely acknowledged the young fellow's salute. (Galsworthy)

2. Intensifying particles: simply, still, just, yet, all, but, only, quite, even etc.

He made plans to renew this time in placesstill more delightful. (Galsworthy)

Hejust did dislike him. (Galsworthy)

They did noteven know that he was married. (Galsworthy)

If Jo wereonly with him! (Galsworthy)

 But out there he'llsimply get bored to death. (Galsworthy)

3. Connecting particles: too, also.

Higgins comes in. He takes off the hat and overcoat. Pickering comes in. Healso takes off his hat and overcoat. (Shaw)

 He (James) was silent. Soames,too, was silent. (Galsworthy)

4. Negative particles: not, never.

No, he wasnot afraid of that. (Galsworthy)

 She looked round her. Nothing —not a thing, no tiniest disturbance of her hall, nor of the dining room. (Galsworthy)

 I never spoke to him except to ask him to buy a flower off me. (Shaw)

Some of the particles are polysemantic, for instance just, only.

That'sjust his way of talking. (Dreiser) (limiting particle)

Why, I think, that's a terrible price to ask for it,just awful. (Dreiser) (intensifying particle)

French peopleonly come to England to make money. (Galsworthy) (LIMITING PARTICLE)

If only there were a joyful future to look forward to! (Galsworthy) (INTENSIFYING PARTICLE)

Almost all the particles are homonymous with other parts of speech, chiefly with adverbs (simply), but also with conjunctions (but), pronouns (all) and adjectives (only). The particles else, solely, merely have no homonyms.  

Chapter XIII

THE VERB

§ 1. The verb is a part of speech, which denotes an action (run, play) or a state (love, seem). The verb has the following grammatical categories: person, number, tense, aspect, voice and mood. These categories can be expressed by means of affixes, inner flexion (change of the root vowel) and by form words.

Verbs may be transitive and intransitive.

Verbs have finite forms, which can be used as the predicate of a sentence, and non-finite forms which cannot be used as the predicate of a sentence.

§ 2. According to their morphological structure verbs are divided into:

a) simple (read, live, hide, speak),

b) derived, i. e. having affixes (magnify, fertilize, captivate, undo, decompose),

c) compound, i. e. consisting of two stems (daydream, browbeat),

d) composite, consisting of a verb and a postposition of adverbial origin (sit down, go away, give up).

The postposition often changes the meaning of the verb with which it is associated. Thus, there are composite verbs whose meaning is different from the meaning of their components: to give up—бpocaть, прекращать; to bring up—воспитывать; to do away— ликвидировать.

There are other composite verbs in which the original meaning of its components is preserved: to stand up, to come in, to go out, to put on.

§ 3. The basic forms of the verb in Modern English are; the Infinitive, the Past Indefinite and Participle II: to speak—-spoke— spoken.

According to the way in which the Past Indefinite and Participle II are formed, verbs are divided into three groups: regular verbs, irregular verbs, and mixed verbs.

 1. Regular verbs. They form the Past Indefinite and Participle II by adding -ed to the stem of the verb, or only -d if the stem of the verb ends in

-e.

to want—wanted    

to unite—united

to open—opened    

to live —lived

The following spelling rules should be observed:

a) Final y is changed into i before the addition of -ed if it is preceded by a consonant:

to carry — carried , to reply—replied

y remains unchanged if it is preceded by a vowel:

to enjoy—enjoyed

b) If a verb ends in a consonant preceded by a short stressed vowel, the final consonant is doubled:

to stop — stopped

to plan —planned

to sob — sobbed

to stir —stirred

to submit — submitted

Final r is doubled if it is preceded by a stressed vowel:

to occur —occurred

to prefer —preferred

to refer —referred

Final r is not doubled when preceded by a diphthong:

to appear — appeared

Final l is doubled if it is preceded by a short vowel, stressed or unstressed:

to compel — compelled

to quarrel — quarrelled

2. Irregular verbs. Here belong the following groups of verbs:

a) verbs which change their root vowel:

to sing — sang — sung

to meet — met — met

to win — won — won

b) verbs which change their root vowel and add -en for Participle II:

to speak — spoke — spoken

to write —wrote—written

to take —took —taken

c) verbs which change their root vowel and add -d or -t :

to sell —sold —sold

to bring — brought — brought

d) verbs which change their final -d into -t :

to send —sent —sent

to build — built — built

e) verbs which have the same form for the Infinitive, Past Indefinite and Participle II:

to put —put —put

to set—set—set

to shut — shut — shut

f) verbs whose forms come from different stems:

to be—was, were — been

to go —went — gone

g) special irregular verbs:

to have—had —had

to make — made — made

to do —did —done

h) defective (anomalous) verbs:

can — could

must

ought

may —might

will —would

shall — should

3. Mixed verbs. Their Past Indefinite is of the regular type, and their Participle II is of the irregular type:

to show — showed — shown

to sow —sowed —sown

§ 4. According to the syntactic function of verbs, which depends on the extent to which they retain, weaken or lose their meaning, they are divided into notional verbs, auxiliary verbs and link verbs.

1. A notional verb is a verb which has an independent meaning and function in the sentence. It is used as a simple verbal predicate and expresses an action or a state of the person or thing denoted by the subject. Here belong such verbs as to write, to read, to speak, to know, to ask.

Ricky surrounded her with great care and luxury. (Stern)

She knew what he was thinking. (Galsworthy)

I know what you mean (Rendell)

2. Auxiliary verbs are those which have lost their meaning and are used only as form words, thus having only a grammatical function. They are used in analytical forms. Here belong such verbs as to do, to have, to be, shall, will, should, would, may.

Have you spoken to him?

I haven’t had the chance yet.

You will realize soon that he is always like this.

They are coming tomorrow.

3. Link verbs are verbs which to a smaller or greater extent have lost their meaning and are used in the compound nominal predicate: to be, to turn, to get, to grow, to remain etc.

The house was too big. (Galsworthy)

The old face looked worn and hollow again. (Galsworthy)

It’s getting dark outside.

He didn’t seem tired. (Snow)

In different contexts the same verb can be used as a notional verb and an auxiliary verb or a link verb:

She turned her head sullenly away from me. (notional verb)

She turned deadly pale. (link verb)

No one was there to meet him. (notional verb)

She was not a ten-year-old girl any more... (link verb)

This evening she was unusually excited, her red cheeks and lips contrasting lustrously with her shadowy hair. (link verb)

There is a special group of verbs, which have no independent function in the sentence, though they preserve a meaning of their own. They are often referred to as semi-auxiliary verbs. These are modal verbs such as can, may, must, ought etc.

I can’t walk any further, my feet ache.

I suppose I ought to say a word or two about myself (Rendell)

The same verb in different contexts can be modal and auxiliary.

I crouched against the wall of the gallery so that I

should not be seen. (Du Maurier) (auxiliary verb)

I don't honestly think Lady Crowan was exaggerating when she said something should be done in your honour. (Du Maurier) (modal verb)

I had no idea she would do that. (Du Maurier) (auxiliary verb)

He needed a cook. Why couldn't she apply for the job? But Morris would not hear of it. (Prichard) (modal verb)

§ 5. As has been stated above a verb can be transitive and intransitive. Transitive verbs take a direct object, i.e. they express an action that passes on to a person or thing directly. A direct object answers the questions What? or Whom? Only action verbs can be transitive. Here belong such verbs as to take, to give, to send, to make, to see, to show, to bring, to love, etc.

She could order dinner with judgement and select proper wines for each course. (Hilton)

I saw Evelyn at the conference.

There are some transitive verbs, which are hardly ever used without a direct object, such as to take, to make, to give, to have.

Arthur signed the receipt, took his papers and went out

in dead silence. (Voynich)

There are other verbs which can be used either with or without a direct object, such as to read, to write, to hear, to see.

On Friday night about eleven he had packed his bag and was leaning out of his window... when he heard a tiny sound, as of a finger-nail, tapping on his door (Galsworthy)

The starch, as he soon heard, was valued at ten dollars a barrel and it only brought six. (Dreiser)

Any verb that does not take a direct object is intransitive. That is, the verb does not express an action that passes on to a receiver. Here belong such verbs as to stand, to sleep, to laugh, to think, to lie, to swim, etc.

He shrugged without answering (Hilton)

Helen’s smile widened (Hilton)

Helen Avery flushed angrily (Hilton)

There are verbs whose primary meaning is transitive and whose secondary meaning is intransitive. Here" belong such verbs as to sell, to read, to add, to act, etc.

This book sells well.

Though Dora tried hard the figures would not add.

There are verbs whose primary meaning is intransitive and whose secondary meaning is transitive. Here belong such verbs as to work, to starve, to walk, to run, etc.

For that man, I've been running people through the front line! (Heym)                                     

§ 6. A verb can also have some aspect characteristics depending solely on its lexical meaning. Accordingly verbs are divided into terminative, non-terminative and verbs of double lexical (aspect) character.

1. A terminative verb expresses an action, which has a final aim in view, a certain limit beyond which the action cannot be continued. For instance the final aim of the action expressed by the verb to close is to have something closed; after you have closed it you cannot continue closing — this is the limit beyond which the action of the verb to close does not go.

Here belong simple and composite verbs, such as to come, to bring, to build, to give, to take, to receive, to find, to fall, to kill, to die, to become, to stand up, to sit down, to come to. They can correspond both to Russian verbs of imperfective and of perfective aspect: to come – приходить, прийти; to build – строить, построить; to die – умирать, умереть.

The doctor returned to the room.

The doctor put the aspirins half by half into her mouth and she washed them down with the warm wine. (Spark)

2. Non-terminative verbs denote a certain action, which does not imply any limit. Here belong such verbs as to live, to exist, to sleep, to love, to be, to have, to possess, to work, to speak, to respect, to hope, to sit, etc.                       

They correspond to Russian verbs of imperfective aspect only: to live — жить, to exist – существовать, to sleep — спать.

She stood in the room noticing the sunlight on the floor. (Spark)

Annabel lay on her sleepless bed now. (Spark)

3. Verbs of double lexical character in certain contexts have a terminative meaning, and in others, a non-terminative meaning. Here belong such verbs as to see, to hear, to write, to read, to translate.

Arthur looked round the room, saw that everything was hidden, and unlocked the door. (Voynich)

Артур бросил взгляд на комнату, увидел, что все спрятано и отпер дверь.

I don't believe in fairies. I never see any. (Galsworthy)

Я не верю в фей. Я их никогда не вижу.

§ 7. As has already been mentioned, the verb has the grammatical categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, and mood.

In Modern English there are but few forms indicating person and number in the synthetic forms of the verb. These are:

1.The third person singular Present Indefinite Indicative– he speaks.

2. The Future Indefinite tense:

I shall speak We shall speak 

He will speak They will speak

The verb to be has suppletive forms for different persons (singular and plural).

I am, was        We ü

He is, was        You ý are, were

                          They þ

§ 8. The category of tense is very clearly expressed in the forms of the English verb. This category denotes the relation of the action either to the moment of speaking or to some definite moment in the past or future. The category of tense and the category of aspect are intermingled.

The category of aspect shows the way in which the action develops, whether it is in progress or completed, etc. In Russian the category of aspect predominates, and the category of tense is subordinated to it. In English contrariwise the category of tense predominates and aspect is subordinated to it. Some of the English tenses denote time relations, others denote both time and aspect relations. There are four groups of tenses: Indefinite, Continuous, Perfect and Perfect Continuous. The Indefinite form has no aspect characteristics whatever, the Continuous, Perfect and Perfect Continuous forms denote both time and aspect relations. Each of these forms includes four tenses: Present, Past, Future and Future in the Past, i.e. future from the point of view of the past. Thus there are 16 tenses in English.

§ 9. Voice is the category of the verb, which indicates the relation of the predicate to the subject and the object.

There are three voices in English: the active voice, the passive voice and the neuter-reflexive voice.

The active voice shows that the person or thing denoted by the subject is the doer of the action expressed by the predicate.

The passive voice shows that the person or thing denoted by the subject is acted upon.

The neuter-reflexive voice shows that the action expressed by the predicate passes on to the subject. This voice is formed by means of a reflexive pronoun.

Helen lifted herself up and looked towards nurse. (Gaskell)

The truth was, Mary was dressing herself. (Gaskell)

§10. Mood is a grammatical category, which indicates the attitude of the speaker towards the action expressed by the verb from the point of view of its reality.

We distinguish the Indicative mood, the Imperative mood, and the Subjunctive mood.

Tenses in the Active Voice.

The Indefinite form merely shows that the action takes place in the present, past or future. The form of the verb gives no indication as to its duration or completion.

The Present Indefinite.

§ 1. The use of the Present Indefinite.

The Present Indefinite is used to denote:

1. Customary, repeated actions. This is its most characteristic use.

I usually go away at weekends.

The repeated character of the action is often shown by adverbials such as every day, often, usually, etc.

2. Permanent actions or states (continuing for a long time), characterizing the subject.

She sings and plays the piano beautifully.

He is so lazy. He doesn’t do anything to help me.

Barry works in a shop.

The license runs for a year.

3. Universal truths, something that is eternally true.

Magnet attracts iron.

The earth rotates round its axis.

4. Actions going on at the present moment:

a) with verbs not used in the Continuous form.

I see George in the street. Tell him to come in.

I hear somebody knock. Go and open the door.

I quite understand what you mean.

b) When the fact of the action is important, not the process. The speaker just names the action as such:

You leave me no choice.

I swear to it.

I refuse to answer.

Why don’t you answer?

5. A future action:

a) In adverbial clauses of time and condition after the conjunctions when, till, until, before, after, as soon as, as long as, if, unless, on condition that, provided.

Robert, will you mend me a pen or two before you go? (Ch.Bronte)

I promise not to try to see Robert again till he asks for me. (Ch.Bronte)

Note. – It should be borne in mind that this use of the Present Indefinite occurs only in adverbial clauses of time and condition. In object and attributive clauses introduced by when the Future Indefinite is used.

I wonder when he will give us an answer.

We are impatiently awaiting the day when our friends will return.

b) with verbs of motion, such as to go, to come, to leave and aspect verbs such as to begin, to finish etc. to speak about fixed future events (timetables, calendar):

The train leaves at 10 to-morrow.

The World Cup begins in two weeks.

The Past Indefinite

§ 2. The use of the Past Indefinite.

The Past Indefinite denotes an action performed within a period of time, which is already over. The action is cut off from the present. The time of the action may be indicated by adverbials of past time, such as yesterday, a week ago, last year, etc.

The sun came out a moment ago.

Miss Helstone stayed the whole evening. (Ch.Bronte)

The Past Indefinite can correspond to the Russian past perfective and past imperfective (совершенный и несовершенный вид глагола).

He smoked a cigarette and left the room.

He smoked in silence for a few minutes.

The translation depends on the context and the lexical character of the verb.

The Past Indefinite is used to denote:

a) an action performed in the past.

Shakespeare died in 1616.

We went to the theatre last night.

When did she come?

b) a succession of past actions.

In this case the Past Indefinite is rendered in Russian by the past perfective.

He threw down his spade and entered the house. (Ch. Bronte)

Он бросил лопату и вошел в дом

c) repeated actions in the past.

In this case the Past Indefinite is rendered in Russian by the past imperfective.

He made an entry in his diary every night. (Bennett)

Каждый вечер он делал запись в дневнике.