The Past Perfect Continuous.

§ 15.We distinguish two uses of the Past Perfect Continuous: the Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Past Perfect Continuous Exclusive.

1. The Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive denotes an action, which began before a definite moment in the past, continued up to that moment and was still going on at that moment. Either the starting point of the action is indicated or the whole period of duration. The preposition for is used to denote the whole period of duration. Since is used to indicate the starting point of the action.

You can say that something had been happening for a period of time before something else happened:

Our game of tennis was interrupted. We'd been playing for about half an hour when it started to rain very heavily.

The Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive is used in negative sentences, but it is less common than the Past Perfect Inclusive.

With verbs not admitting of the Continuous form the Past Perfect Inclusive is the only tense possible.

With certain non-terminative verbs both the Past Perfect Inclusive and the Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive are used.

He said he had worked for 20 years (the fact is emphasized)

He said he had been working for a long time without notice-

able results. (the process is emphasized)

The Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive is rendered in Russian by the Past imperfective.

I had been walking for about half an hour when it suddenly

started to rain.

Я гулял примерно полчаса, когда вдруг начался дождь.

2. The Past Perfect Continuous Exclusive denotes an action which was no longer going on at a definite moment in the past, but it had been in progress not long before.

Ken gave up smoking two years ago. He'd been smoking

for 30 years.

§ 16. The Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Past Continuous.

Compare had been doing and was doing:

It wasn't raining when we went out. The sun was shining. But it had been raining, so the ground was wet.

Ann was sitting in an armchair watching television. She was tired because she'd been working very hard.

§ 17. The use of the Future Perfect Continuous.

The Future Perfect Continuous denotes an action which will begin before a definite moment in the future, will continue up to that moment and will be going on at that moment.

In ten minutes we’ll have been waiting for the bus for

exactly an hour.

The Passive Voice

The Passive Voice is formed by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the required form and Participle II of the notional verb.

§ 18. The use of the Passive Voice.

The Passive Voice can be used:

a) without the doer of the action being mentioned for some special reasons (tact or delicacy of feeling).

Enough has been said here of a subject which will be treated more fully in a subsequent chapter.

You have been told so many times not to touch these things.

b) when the doer of the action is unknown or unimportant

A lot of money was stolen in the robbery.

Is this room cleaned every day?

c) with the doer of the action being mentioned. This occurs only when the doer of the action is to some extent emphasized. The noun or pronoun denoting the doer of the action is introduced by the preposition by.

This house was built by my grandfather.

Two hundred people are employed by the company.

§ 19. The use of tenses in the Passive Voice.

The uses of tenses in the Active and in the Passive Voice are the same.

Indefinite                           

Present   The letter is written.

                    Past       The letter was written.

                    Future             The letter will be written.

Continuous              

Present   The letter is being written.

                    Past       The letter was being written.

To express an action going on at a definite moment in the future only the Future Continuous Active is possible. Thus the Russian sentence «Когда вы придете, опыт уже будет производиться» must be translated in the following way:

When you come, we shall already be making the experiment.

Perfect                      

Present   The letter has been written.

                    Past       The letter had been written.

                    Future             The letter will have been written.

§ 20. Ways of translating the Passive Voice into Russian.

There are three ways of translating the Passive Voice into Russian:

а) by the verb “быть” +  краткое страдательное причастие. In the Present the verb “быть” is not used.

b) by verbs in -ся.

c) by means of indefinite-personal constructions (неопределенно- личное предложение). The last way of translating is possible only if the doer of the action is not mentioned.

Houses are built of stone.

Дома строятся из камня.

The house was built in 1932.

Дом был построен в 1932 году./ Дом построили в 1932 году. The experiment was made by a famous scientist.

Опыт был произведен/ производился известным ученым.

§ 21. Uses of the Passive Voice peculiar to the English language.

There are cases when the use of the Passive Voice seems to Russian students very peculiar because we find no analogous constructions in Russian. These cases are as follows:

1. The verbs to advise, to allow, to ask, to award, to deny, to envy, to forbid (rare), to forgive, to give, to grant, to offer, to order, to pay, to prescribe, to promise, to refuse, to show, to teach, to tell are used in the Passive Voice. These verbs always take an object expressed by a noun or an infinitive. The action expressed by the Passive Predicate passes onto the subject and the object. The subject corresponds to the Russian indirect object.

When I came a telegram was given to me.

A good job was offered to me but I had to turn it down.

The patient was prescribed a strict diet.

He was ordered a change of scene.

We were told to wait.

Note. These verbs admit of another type of passive construction if the object is expressed by a noun. Thus we can say not only I was given a book, He was shown a book, but also A book was given to me, A book was shown to him. The choice of the construction depends on the logical stress: in I was given a book, He was shown a book the thing given is emphasized, which occurs oftener; in The book was given to me, The book was shown to him the person is emphasized.

2. The Passive Voice is possible with intransitive verbs used with prepositions: to account for, to agree upon, to allude to, to arrive at (a conclusion, agreement, decision), to call for, to call upon, to comment upon, to count upon, to depend on (upon), to dispose of, to fire at, to hear of, to insist on (upon), to interfere with, to laugh at, to listen to, to look after, to look at, to look down upon (смотреть на кого-либо сверху вниз), to look up to (смотреть на кого-либо снизу вверх), to put up with (примириться), to read to, to refer to, to rely on, to run over, to send for, to speak about (of), to stare at, to talk about (to, over).

You have been a good deal talked about.

At last an agreement was arrived at.

Her strange behavior was largely commented upon.

He can be depended upon to keep strict silence.

This is certainly a great inconvenience, but it must

be put up with.

The composite verb to do away with can be used in the Passive Voice.

In our country illiteracy was done away with many years ago.

Note.– To send for can be used only in connection with people.

The doctor was sent for. The secretary will be sent for.

Послать за лекарством (книгой) should be translated in the following way: to send somebody to fetch the medicine (the book). But we can say: A car (a cab, a taxi) was sent for.

3. The following verbal phraseological units can be used in the Passive Voice: to find fault with (придираться к кому-либо), to lose sight of (терять из виду), to make a fool of smb., to make fun of, to make use of (использовать), to pay attention to, to put an end to (положить конец), to set fire to, to take notice of, to take care of.

It’sall taken care of.

You are being made a fool of, that’s all.

The boat was soon lost sight of.

His remarks were taken no notice of.

The discussion was put an end to by his sudden arrival.

4. Quite peculiar is the case when the subject of the passive predicate corresponds to the Russian adverbial modifier. This is the case with the intransitive verbs to live and to sleep with the preposition in.

The occupant of the room was fully clothed, though the bed had been slept in.

The room looked as if it hadn’t been lived in for years.

5. There are a number of transitive verbs in English, which correspond to intransitive verbs in Russian. They are: to affect, to answer, to assist, to attend, to follow, to help, to influence, to join, to watch.

These verbs naturally admit of the passive construction while their Russian equivalents cannot be used in the Passive Voice.

She was greatly affected by the scene.

The report was followed by a discussion.

Walter Scott's poetry was strongly influenced by

the popular ballads.

Such sentences are rendered in Russian by indefinite-personal sentences (неопределенно- личные предложения) unless the doer of the action is mentioned.

§ 22. The Passive Voice and the Nominal Predicate.

The combination to be+ Participle II can denote an action, in which case it is a simple predicate expressed by a verb in the Passive Voice. It can also denote a state, then it is a compound nominal predicate consisting of a link verb and a predicative.

It was very hot in the room because all the windowswere

closed (nominal).

The door was closed at seven o’clock by the porter. (verbal)

The compound nominal predicate expressed by the verb to be and Participle II can be translated only by the verb быть+ краткое страдательное причастие. In the Present the Verb быть is not used.

The vase is broken. Ваза разбита.

When I came, the papers were signed and lay on the secretary's table.

Когда я пришел, документы были подписаны и лежали на столе секретаря.

It is sometimes difficult to discriminate between the verb to be+ Participle II as a simple predicate and as a compound nominal predicate.

1. We have the Passive Voice (simple predicate) in the following cases:

a) when the doer of the action is indicated (as a rule).

Other possibilitieswere considered by my colleagues.

They were thus introduced by Holly. (Galsworthy)

b) when there is an adverbial modifier of place, frequency and, as a rule, of time.

The whole affair was soon forgotten.

The library door was opened at midnight.

Good books arequickly sold.

He was arrested at the hotel.

c) when the verb is used in the Continuous or in the Perfect form.

What sort of research is being done, and who is doing it?

You can see that this glass has been used.

I’ve been turned out of the place were I live.

d) When the verb to be is associated with Participle II of non-terminative verbs like to love, to like, to respect, to honour, to hate:

He was most highly esteemed by Mr. Darcy. (Austen)

She is loved by all her friends.

He was admired for his courage.

Is he generally liked?

e) When the predicate is in the Future tense (or Future in the Past)

The entrance door will be closed at seven.

Further details will be given in subsequent chapters.

2. We have a compound nominal predicate in the following cases:

a) usually when the verb to be is in the Present or Past Perfect Inclusive and the notional verb admits of the Continuous form.

Why don't you go and take the documents? They are ready. They have been typed these two hours.

Our things had been packed for two hours and we were impatiently pacing up and down the room when at last we heard the sound of wheels.

 b) when Participle II denotes a state of mind. In this case the predicate is compound even if there is an object introduced by the preposition by. This object does not denote the doer of an action but the cause of the state.

Elisabeth was distressed. (Austen)

I was surprised to see Mr. Darcy in town last month. (Austen)

I was so frightened I didn’t know what to do. (Austen)

When these criteria cannot be applied the context itself helps to decide whether the predicate is a simple or a compound nominal one.

Modal verbs

§ 1. Modal verbs are used to show the speaker's attitude toward the action or state indicated by the infinitive, i. e. they show that the action indicated by the infinitive is considered as possible, impossible, probable, improbable, obligatory, necessary, advisable, doubtful or uncertain, etc. The modal verbs are: can (could), may (might), must, should, ought, shall, will, would, need, dare. The modal expressions to be + Infinitive and to have + Infinitive also belong here.

Modal verbs are called defective because all of them (except dare and need) lack verbals and analytical forms (i. e. compound tenses, analytical forms of the Subjunctive Mood, the Passive Voice).

Besides they do not take -s in the third person singular. They also have the following peculiarities:

1) All of them (except ought and sometimes dare and need) are followed by the infinitive without the particle to.

2) All of them (except dare and need) form the negative and the interrogative form without the auxiliary do.

3) All the modal verbs have two negative forms—a full one and a contracted one:

should not—shouldn't, may not—mayn't, must not — mustn't, need not — needn't, dare not — daren't.

Note the peculiar contracted form of some modal verbs:

cannot —can't, shall not—shan't, will not —won't.

§ 2. Can.

The verb can has two forms: can for the Present Tense and could for the Past Tense; the expression to be able to which has the same meaning can be used to supply the missing forms of the verb can.

Can expresses ability or capability, possibility, incredulity or doubt, astonishment and permission.

 1. Physical or mental ability.

The little boy could not open the heavy door.

He started to run as fast as he could.

I can study by myself (London)

Can is often used with verbs that concern the mind and the senses, such as believe, see, here, feel.

In the meaning of ability it can be used only with the Indefinite Infinitive.

2. Possibility.     

a) due to circumstances:

I could not go to the theatre yesterday because I was busy.

From where he sat he could see a cluster of apple trees

 in blossom. (Galsworthy)

I can bathe when it’s warmer. (Maurier)

You can have the book when I have finished it.

Can I have my photo taken?

In the last two sentences can comes close to may expressing permission, but it does not so much indicate possibility depending upon the will of the person addressed (which is the essence of permission) as possibility depending on circumstances.

b) due to the existing laws:

The more she studied, the less sure she became, till idly turning the pages, she came to Scotland. People could be married there without any of this nonsense. (Galsworthy)

You cannot play football in the street (i. e., you have no right).

Can expressing possibility is used with the Indefinite Infinitive only.

Note. Could is often used in polite requests.

Could you give us a consultation to-morrow?

3. Incredulity, doubt, astonishment (they are closely connected). In these meanings can is used with all the forms of the Infinitive in interrogative and negative sentences, though astonishment is expressed only in interrogative sentences.

 «That is not true!» exclaimed Linton, rising in agitation. «It cannot be; it is incredible, it cannot be.» (Ch. Bronte)

«... Не может этого быть, это невероятно, не может

этого быть!»

Can she be waiting for us?

Неужели она нас ждет?

She cannot be waiting for us.

Не может быть, чтобы она нас ждала.

Can (could) she have said that?

Неужели она это сказала?

Could it be true?

Неужели это правда?

There could not have been such relentless unforgiveness.

Не может быть, чтобы человек мог так жестоко не прощать.

«Oh!» cried Fleur. "You could not have done it." (Galsworthy)

«О!»,– вскричала Флэр. «Не может быть, чтобы вы это сделали!»

Can she have been waiting for us all the time?

Неужели она нас все это время ждет?

They couldn't have seen us.

Не может быть, чтобы они нас видели.

In the last two examples we can easily replace could by can without any change of meaning.

Could with the Perfect Infinitive has almost the same meaning as can with the Perfect Infinitive, only the negation is not so categorical as with can.

If the action refers to the past, the Perfect Infinitive is mostly used. Other forms of the Infinitive are hardly ever used.

Note. The Russian negative-interrogative sentences of the type «Неужели она этого не видела?» are rendered in English by complex sentences:

Can it be that she has not seen it?

4. Permission.

Except in formal writing can is more common than may to express permission:

Can I use your car?

You can go now.

Can is also used to express permission for the future:

You can borrow my car tomorrow.

May.

The verb may has two forms: may for the Present Tense and might for the Past Tense. The expressions to be allowed and to be permitted, which have the same meaning, can be used to supply the missing forms of the verb may.

"MayI come along?" asked Karen. (Heym)

Jolyon thought he mightnot have the chance of

saying it after. (Galsworthy)

You are to stay in bed until you are allowed to get up. (Du Maurier)

May expresses permission, uncertainty, possibility, reproach.

1. Permission.

May I use your phone? (Heym)

At any rate she murmured something to the effect that he might stay if he wished. (Hardy)

He asked me if he might join us.

May expressing permission is used only with the Indefinite Infinitive. Here we must observe the difference in the expression of permission and prohibition.

Whereas the former is always expressed by may, the latter has other ways of expression besides may not. Very often the negative answer to the question containing a request for permission is don't or must not or can’t.

May I read the letter?        No, don't, please.

Don't is less strict than may not. It is rather asking somebody not to do something than actually prohibiting something, which is expressed by may not.

Must not means that it is not the person who prohibits the action, but that there are facts, rules, or circumstances prohibiting it.

You must notsmoke so much.   .

2. Uncertainty as to the fulfillment of an action, state or occurrence, supposition implying doubt.

Hemay be busy getting ready for his trip

She was and remains a riddle to me. She may and she may not prove to be a riddle to you. (Dreiser)

Not which follows may, expressing uncertainty is always strongly stressed.

In this meaning may is rendered in Russian by modal adverbs возможно, может быть.

In the meaning of supposition implying doubt may occurs in affirmative and negative sentences.

He may be at home/ He might be at home.

He may not be at home/ mightn’t be at home.

The last examples show that might denoting uncertainty has no temporal meaning, i. e. it does not express uncertainty referring to the past. Practically speaking there is hardly any difference between may any might in this meaning. Sometimes might expresses greater reserve or uncertainty on the part of the speaker than may. Might instead of may is often used because of the sequence of tenses.

That was like her—she had no foresight. Still—who knew?— she might be right. (Galsworthy)

Это было похоже на нее– она не умела смотреть вперед. И все же– кто знает– может быть, она была права.

May denoting uncertainty is used with all the forms of the infinitive.

It’s too late to call him now. He may be sleeping.

«Where is the dog? It isn’t here»– «It’s master may have taken

it with him.

He may have been waiting for us for a long time.

When uncertainty is expressed the time of the action is indicated by the form of the Infinitive and not by the form of the modal verb, as both may and might can refer to the present or to the past in accordance with the form of the Infinitive. If the action refers to the past, the Perfect Infinitive is used.

3. Possibility due to circumstance's.

May is used in this sense only in affirmative sentences. Can is also possible in this meaning.

You may/ can order a taxi by phone.

In this meaning it is generally used with the Indefinite Infinitive.

4.  Reproach.

Only might is used in this meaning but not may. It is found in affirmative sentences and followed by the Indefinite or Perfect Infinitive. It expresses reproach for the non-performance of an action.

You might lend me a razor. I was shaved this morning with a

sort of bill-hook. (Galsworthy)

You might have helped me.

§ 4. Must.

The verb must has only one form. The expressions to have to and to be obliged to which have the same meaning can be used to supply the missing tense forms of the verb must. Must is used in present- time contexts with reference to the present and future and in combination with the Perfect Infinitive it refers to the past. In past- time contexts this form is used only in reported speech, i. e. the rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed with must.

And now I must go back to my social duties. (Voynich)

Must expresses obligation, necessity, an urgent command or prohibition, and a supposition bordering on assurance.

1. Obligation, necessity, duty (from the speakers point of view).

(a) due to circumstances (in this meaning it is equivalent to have to and is used only with the Indefinite Infinitive in affirmative, negative and interrogative sentences)                

He must write. He must earn money. (London)

I must ask you to excuse me. (Maugham)

Then we must find another way. (Voynich)

The absence of necessity is expressed by need not.

Must I go there to-morrow? Yes, you must. No, you needn't.

(b) arising out of the nature of man and consequently inevitable.                                                            

All experience tended to show that man must die. (Galsworthy)

Bad seed must produce bad corn.

2. A command, an urgent (emphatic) request or a prohibition. In this meaning it is used only with the Indefinite Infinitive.

Youmust leave the room at once!

You mustn’t walk on the grass!

You must come and see us when you are in London.

3. Probability or supposition bordering on assurance.

In this meaning must is used with all the forms of the Infinitive in affirmative sentences only. It corresponds to the Russian должно быть.

If the action refers to the present the Indefinite Infinitive is used; if the action refers to the past the Perfect Infinitive is used.

Surely, they don't want me for myself. Then theymust want me for something else. (London)

John must be at the station by now.

Oh, Mae, think how hemust be suffering! (Webster)

That must have been a pleasant experience (Voinich)

It must have been raining all night. There are big puddles

 in the garden.

In negative sentences supposition is expressed by means of the modal word evidently.

Evidently, she did not know my address.

Supposition referring to the future cannot be expressed by must. The modal word probably or the modal expression to be likely are to be used instead.

She is not likely to come so late.

She will probably come to-morrow.

Should and ought.

The modal verbs should and ought are treated together here as there is hardly any difference between them. Very often they are interchangeable.

There is, however, a difference in construction. Whereas should is followed by the infinitive without the particle to, ought is always followed by the to-infinitive.

When reference is made to the present or future, the Indefinite or Continuous Infinitive is used.

In war-time, a man should not part with his rifle. (Heym)

It's murder, and we ought to stop it. (London)

At your age you ought to be earning your living.

You shouldn’t be sitting in the sun.

When reference is made to the past the Perfect Infinitive shows that the obligation was not carried out. In the negative form the combination with the Perfect Infinitive shows that an undesirable action was fulfilled.

He ought to have put everything off.

You should have told me about it yourself.

I am sorry. I oughtn’t to have said it.

Oh, you should have done as you did.

Both should and ought express obligation, something which is advisable, proper or naturally expected.

1. Obligation, very often a moral obligation or duty.

In this meaning ought is more often used than should.

You ought to say a word or two about yourself.

He oughtn’t to mention it to anybody

2. Advisability

In this meaning should is more common than ought, as it always shows some personal interest whereas ought is more matter-of-fact.

You should be more careful. (London)

Вы должныбыть более осторожны.

You shouldn’t miss the opportunity.

Вам не следует упускать эту возможность.

3. Something, which can be naturally expected.

The new sanatorium ought to be very comfortable.

The film should be very good as it is starring first-class actors.

Such use of should and ought to does not seem to be very common as this meaning is usually rendered by must.

§6. To be+ Infinitive.

To be + Infinitive is a modal expression.

This modal expression can be used in two tenses—the Present Indefinite and the Past Indefinite (was, were).

Dear Jim, I am to be shot at sunrise to-morrow.(Voynich)

They were to go to Spain for the honeymoon. (Galsworthy)

To be + Infinitive expresses a weakened order, an arrangement, possibility, something thought of as unavoidable. The ways of rendering this expression in Russian differ in accordance with its meaning.

1. An order which is generally the result of an arrangement made by one person for another, an arrangement which is not to be discussed. In this case only the Indefinite Infinitive is used.

You are to go straight to your room. You are to say nothing of

this to anyone. (De la Roche)

Ты должна идти прямо в свою комнату. Ты никому не должна ничего говорить об этом.

Norman says I am to leave you alone.

Норман говорит, что я должен оставить тебя в покое.

2. An arrangement or agreement, part of a plan.

In this meaning both the Indefinite and the Perfect infinitive can be used; the Perfect Infinitive shows that the action was not carried out.

I'm sorry, Major, we had an agreement– I was to do the

questioning here. (Heym)

Простите, майор, мы условились, что допрос буду вести я.

We were to meet at the entrance of the theatre at a

quarter to eight. (mutual arrangement)

Мы должны были встретиться у входа в театр.

He was to have met me here the next morning." (Voynich)

Он должен был встретить меня здесь на следующее утро.

3. Possibility.

In this meaning the passive form of the Infinitive is used unless it is a question beginning with the interrogative adverb how. Here the meaning of the modal expression comes very close to that of the verb can.

Her father was often to be seen in the bar of the Hotel Metropole.

Ее отца часто можно было видеть в баре отеля Метрополь.

Where is he to be found?

Где можно его найти?

How are they to know that you are well connected if you do not show it by your costume?

Как могут они знать, что вы– человек со связями, если вы не показываете этого своей манерой одеваться.

4. Something thought of as unavoidable; something that is destined to happen.

He was to be my teacher and friend for many years to come.

Ему суждено было быть моим учителем и другом на протяжении многих лет.

I went about brooding over my lot, wondering almost hourly what was to become of me. (Dreiser)

Я все время размышлял о своей судьбе, беспрестанно задавая себе вопрос, что со мною станет.

Note 1. Sometimes when it is used after the conjunction if it has the same

meaning as the verb to want.

If we are to remain friends you must tell me the truth.

Note 2. It should be borne in mind that the Russian questions «Как мне быть?», «Что мне делать,» are rendered in English by the modal expression What am I to do?

§ 7.To have + Infinitive

The modal expression to have + Infinitive is used in three tenses: the Present Indefinite, the Past Indefinite and the Future Indefinite. It is not a defective verb and can have all the necessary finite forms and verbals.

I have to get up at six every day.

I shall have to reconsider my position.

She knew what she had to do.

Having to work alone, he wanted all his time for his research.

The negative and interrogative forms of this modal expression are formed with the help of the auxiliary do.

Did you have to walk all the way home?

I didn’t have to walk, I took a tram.

Only the Indefinite Infinitive Active and Passive can be used in this modal expression.

I had imagined we should have to hold a large house-party

for the occasion. (Du Maurier)

I wouldn't look through the letters—disappointmenthad to be postponed, hope kept alive as long as possible. (Greene)

To have+ Infinitive expresses an obligation or necessity arising out of circumstances. Its meaning is close to that of to be obliged. It is often rendered in Russian by приходится, должен, вынужден.

He is an invalid and has to have a nurse.

Он инвалид и вынужден иметь сиделку.

In colloquial English and especially in American English have got + Infinitive is often used in the same meaning as have + Infinitive.

This modal expression is used in the Present Indefinite tense only.

I’ve got to go.

Have you got to go right now?

You haven’t got to go right now.

There is a tendency in Modern English to use got + Infinitive in the same meaning.

You can smile away till you split your cheeks, but you still got to do a day's work to earn a day's wages, and apples don't grow on monkey-trees. (Lindsay)

Shall.

Shall is never a purely modal verb. It always combines its modal meaning with the function of an auxiliary expressing futurity.

It expresses determination on the part of the speaker, i. e. compulsion or order, threat or warning, promise.

As a rule shall as a modal verb is not translated into Russian, its meaning is rendered by emphatic intonation.

1. Compulsion or strict order.

In this meaning it is always used with the second and third persons and has a strong stress.

«You shall not run away before you answer!» (Shaw)

Tonight you shall be entirely English: you shall read an English book.

In interrogative sentences shall is used in the first and third persons to inquire after the wish of the person addressed.

Shall I shut the door, ma'am? (Dickens) (Do you want me to shut the door?)

Закрыть дверь, сударыня?

Shall I get you some fresh coffee?

Принести еще кофе?

2. Threat or warning.

In this meaning it is also used in the second and third person and with a weak stress.

"That's the last time!" she cried. "You shall never see me again" (Maugham)

«Это конец!»– закричала она. «Больше ты меня не увидишь!»

3. Promise.

It is also used with the second and third persons and with a weak stress.

Don't be afraid, Jane, I saw it was an accident. You shall not be punished. (Ch. Bronte)

Не бойся, Джейн, я видела, что это произошло случайно. Тебя не накажут.

I shall make you happy, see if I don't. You shall do what you like, spend what you like. (Thackeray)

Я сделаю вас счастливой, вот увидите. Вы будете делать, что хотите, и тратить сколько хотите.

Will.

Will is hardly ever a purely modal verb. It generally combines its modal meaning with the function of an auxiliary expressing futurity.

The modal verb will expresses volition, intention on the part of the speaker, or persistence.

1. Volition, intention.

In most cases this meaning is rendered in Russian by emphatic intonation, but sometimes the verb хотеть is used. It is used with all persons but mostly with the first person.

«What is this? Who is this? Turn this man out. Clear the office!» cried Mr. Fang. «I will speak,» cried the man; «I will not be turned out...» (Dickens)

«Что это? Кто это? Выставьте этого человека. Очистить помещение!» «Нет, я буду говорить!– закричал человек. «Вы меня не выставите».

Some people will object to anyone.

Некоторые люди будут возражать всякому.

Very often will is used after the conjunction if in conditional clauses where it retains its modal meaning, that of volition.

You may laugh if you will but I was sure I should see her there.

Можете смеяться, если хотите, но я был уверен, что встречу

ее там.

The modal verb will is used in polite requests and inquiries.

Will you have a cup of tea?

Will you wait a moment, please?

Won’t you take off your overcoat?

Note. The modal verb will should not be confused with the auxiliary will in American English where there is a marked tendency to use it with all the persons.

2. Persistence referring to the present or to the future.

«Don't tell me.» «But I will tell you,» repeated Sikes. (Dickens)

«Не рассказывайте мне об этом». «Но я все равно расскажу».

I try to persuade him but he won’t listen to my reasons.

Я пытаюсь его убедить, но он не желает слушать моих доводов.

It is also used in speaking about lifeless things when the speaker is annoyed at something and speaks about a thing or a phenomenon of nature as if it possessed a will of its own (there is an element of personification here).

It's no use trying to open the door, it will not open.

Не стоит пытаться открыть дверь: она не откроется.

Would.

Would was originally the past tense of will in the same way as should was the past tense of shall. But while the latter has acquired new shades of meaning, would has preserved those of will. Thus it expresses volition, persistence referring to the past.

1. Volition. In this meaning it is mostly used in negative sentences.

She was going away and would not say where she was going.

Она уезжала и не хотела сказать, куда.

Ms. Ivors, who had put on her hat and was buttoning her cloak, would not stay. (Joyce)

2. Persistence.

I asked him not to bang the door, but he would do it.

Я просил его не хлопать дверью, а он всепродолжал хлопать. Several times Eckerman tried to get away, but Goethe would

not lethim go. (Maugham)

Несколько раз Эккерман пытался уйти, но Гете не пускал его.

It is also used in speaking about lifeless things in the same way as will, but in this use would is more common than will.

The handle turned, but the door would not open.

3. Closely connected with the primary meaning of volition is the use of would to express habitual or recurrent actions; it is commonly used in literary descriptions, but not in speaking:

Inthe afternoon he would go out alone and walk for hours.

Dare.

Dare means to have the courage (or impertinence) to do something. In the negative it denotes the lack of courage to do something.

I dare not be alone at night. (Voynich)

Howdare you talk to me like this?

The verb dare as well as need has some peculiarities, which make it different from other modal verbs.

It is used both as a normal verb (taking the auxiliary do in the interrogative and negative forms, -s in the third person singular and the to- infinitive) and as an anomalous verb (without any auxiliary in its interrogative and negative forms, without -s in the third person singular and without the particle to before the infinitive which follows it). Dare has two forms– dare for the Present and dared for the Past.

Did he dare to strike me when I was down? (E.Bronte)

She dared not look into the glass. (Dickens)

He did not dare to meet his uncle. (Kruisinga.)

How dare you go out by yourself after the orders I gave you? (Shaw)

Sometimes dare takes the auxiliary but is followed by the bare infinitive.

You know you didn't dare give the order to charge the bridge until you saw us on the other side. (Shaw)

Dare is mostly used in interrogative and negative sentences. However, we often come across I dare say which has become a stock phrase and acquired a new meaning I suppose. Dare is used only with the Indefinite Infinitive.

Need.

Need expresses necessity. It is mostly used in negative and interrogative sentences.

You needn't be in such a fright. Take my arm. (Shaw)

Не надо так бояться. Возьмите меня под руку.

I don’t know whether I need trouble about it.

Я не знаю, нужно ли беспокоиться об этом.

Need may be used either as a modal or a regular verb

1. Need as a modal verb has only the Present form. In reported speech it remains unchanged. It is followed by the Infinitive without to.

You needn’t be afraid of me.

Вам не нужно/ незачем бояться меня.

You needn’t meet him unless you want to.

Вам незачем встречаться с ним, если вы не хотите.

Need I repeat it?

Нужно ли/ к чему мне повторять это.

In combination with the Perfect Infinitive need expresses an action, which has been performed though it was unnecessary. It implies a waste of time or effort.

You needn’t have come.

Вам незачем было приходить/ вы зря пришли.

It was obvious. You needn’t have protested.

Все было ясно. Вам незачем было протестовать.

2. As a regular verb need can have all the necessary forms, including the verbals. It also expresses necessity. It is followed by the Infinitive with to and is mainly used in interrogative and negative sentences.

He didn’t need to explain.

You don’t need to tell me that you are sorry.

It should be noted that need as regular verb is more common than the modal need, particularly in American English.

Note. When need is used in the meaning of to be in want of it is treated as a regular verb.

He needsa new pair of shoes.

MOOD

Mood is a grammatical category, which indicates the attitude of the speaker towards the action expressed by the verb from the point of view of its reality. In Modern English we distinguish three moods:

(1) The Indicative Mood.

(2) The Imperative Mood.

(3) The Subjunctive Mood.

The Indicative Mood

The Indicative Mood shows that the action or state expressed by the verb is presented as a fact.

We went home early in the evening. (Dickens)

The Indicative Mood is also used to express a real condition, i. e. a condition the realization of which is considered possible.

If it rains, I shall stay at home.

The Indicative Mood is characterized by a great number of tense forms in the Active and Passive Voice.

The Imperative Mood

The Imperative Mood expresses a command or a request. In Modern English the Imperative Mood has only one form, which coincides with the Infinitive without the particle to, it is used in the second person (singular and plural).                     I

Be quiet and hear what I tell you. (Eliot)

In forming the negative the auxiliary verb to do is always used, even with the verb to be.

Hush! Don't make a noise! (Eliot)

Don't be angry . . . (Hemingway)

The auxiliary verb to do may also be used in affirmative sentences to make the request more emphatic.

But now, do sing again to us. (Eliot)

Do be quiet.

To make a request or an order more emphatic the subject expressed by the pronoun you is sometimes used. It is characteristic of colloquial speech.

I'll drive and you sleep awhile. (Hemingway)

Note. A command addressed to the third person singular and plural is

usually expressed with the help of the verb to let.

Let the child go home at once.

Пусть ребенок сейчас же идет домой.

Let them do it by themselves.

Пусть они сделают это сами.

With the first person plural the verb to let is used to express an invitation to a joint action.

Let's go and have some fresh coffee. (Mansfield)

Пойдемте выпьем свежего кофе.

The Subjunctive Mood

§1. The Subjunctive Mood shows that the action or state expressed by the verb is presented as a non-fact, as something imaginary or desired. It refers to what could or should happen in hypothetical situations. The Subjunctive Mood is also used to express an emotional attitude of the speaker to real facts. In Modern English the Subjunctive Mood has synthetic and analytical forms.

«I wish I were ten years older,» I said. (Braine) 

«Хотел бы я быть на десять лет старше»,– сказал я.

I wish you would speak rationally. (E. Bronte)

Мне хотелось бы, чтобы вы говорили разумно.

§ 2. The synthetic forms of the Subjunctive Mood can be traced to the Old English period, when the Subjunctive Mood was chiefly expressed by synthetic forms. In Old English the Subjunctive Mood had a special set of inflections, different from those of the Indicative. In course of time most of the inflections were lost and the difference between the forms of the Subjunctive and those of the Indicative has almost disappeared. However, in Modern English there are a few synthetic forms of the Subjunctive, which have survived; they are as follows: the Present Subjunctive of all the verbs and the Past Subjunctive only of the verb to be.

1. The Present Subjunctive. In the Present Subjunctive the verb to be has the form be for all the persons singular and plural, which differs from the corresponding forms of the Indicative Mood (the Present Indefinite). In all other verbs the forms of the Present Subjunctive differ from the corresponding forms of the Indicative Mood only in the third person singular, which in the Present Subjunctive has no ending -s.

The Present Subjunctive denotes an action referring to the present or future. This form is, but seldom, used in Modern English. It may be found in poetry and in elevated prose, where these forms are archaisms used with a certain stylistic aim. It is also used in scientific language and in the language of official documents, where it is a living form.

Here will I stand till Caesar pass along. (Shakespeare)

Though all the world be false, still will I be true. (Trollope)

Даже если весь мир будет лжив, все же я буду правдив.

The Present Subjunctive also occurs in some set expressions.

Be it so!

Suffice it to say that he soon came back.

God forbid!

In American English the Present Subjunctive is used not only in the above-mentioned cases, but also in colloquial language.

Yates called the hospital and insisted that one of the doctors

come to the phone. (Heym)

2.The Past Subjunctive. In the Past Subjunctive the verb to be has the form were for all the persons singular and plural, which in the singular differs from the corresponding form, of the Indicative Mood (the Past Indefinite).

Note. Occasionally the form was, which coincides with the form of the Indicative Mood, can be found in the singular. There is no difference in meaning, but were is more formal, particularly when we are making doubtful statements:

If I was/ werebetter qualified, I would apply for the job.

However, were is preferable in purely imaginary statements:

If I were the Queen, you would be the King.

The Past Subjunctive is widely used in Modern English and occurs not only in literature but also in colloquial language.

The term Past Subjunctive is merely traditional as in Modern English it does not necessarily express a past action. In adverbial clauses of condition it denotes an unreal condition referring to the present or future. In other types of subordinate clauses it denotes an action simultaneous with the action expressed in the principal clause; thus it may refer to the present and to the past.

§ 3. The analytical forms of the Subjunctive Mood consist of the mood auxiliaries should, would, may (might) and the infinitive of the notional verb.

Yates wished Bing would stop thanking him, but

Bing went on. (Heym)

Йейтсу хотелось, чтобы Бинг прекратил благодарить его, но тот все благодарил.

I avoided mentioning the subject lest he should be offended.

Я избегал упоминать эту тему, чтобы не обидеть его.

Mood auxiliaries have developed from modal verbs, which have lost their modality and serve to form the analytical Subjunctive. Still there are cases when mood auxiliaries retain a shade of modality, for instance, the verb might in adverbial clauses of purpose.

I arrived early so that I might not miss anything.

Я приехал рано, чтобы ничего не пропустить.