Classification of morphemes

morpheme-a minimal meaningful unit of language

Morphemes can have different meaning and this is the first principle of their division. 

Morphemes: principles of classification

1.Lexical(roots) work-long

2. Lexico-grammatical(prefixes and derivational suffixes ) -er.

3. Grammatical(inner and other functions grammatical suffixes) -s ,- er

b) prensence/ absence of meaning

1. Full (presence of ANY type of meaning.) see e.g above

2. Empty ( only structural function, no meaning) child/d/r/en, sale/s/man

c)interaction with other morphemes

1. Additive(book+s)

2. Substitutional (replacive)( man-men

d)structure

1. Continuous(book+s)

2. Discontinuous (has(visit)ed)

e) degree of independence

1. Free( only roots-if their form correspond to the word) -visit -

2.bound(all morphemes)-ed,m...n

f) way of representation

1. Segmental(=linear)(expressed by segmental phonetic means-phonemes)

2. Supersegmental(expressed by supersegmental means to the linear structure of the word.-a)stress)function)order of elements. e.g. a)'import-im'port ,b)annoys-a noise,c) income(n)-come in (v)

Comment on the morphemic structure of the following word forms.:

a) is decided-the number of words 2

1. Is....ed(gr) discontin. Additional,bound,linear,full

2. Decide(lex) contin. Subst.,free,linear,full.

GRAMMATICAL MEANING AND FORM and categories.

Linguistics is based on 2 types of meaning-lexical and grammatical

Lexical is individual for this word it specifies the word

Grammatical meaning contrary is more general is units this word with other words irrespective of their lexical meaning.

Grammatical meaning is always expressed in this or that way.

E.g. Visit-visited-market form, inflexion

read-read-replicate morpheme

write-is writing-grammatical

In English as well as in Russia both analytical and synthetic forms are used. Synthetic forms always consist of one component and both types of meaning are expressed in it.

E.g visit -lex. ed-gr.

Synthetic forms are classified in to 3 types: inflexional, suppletive, alternating.

The inflexion is a grammatical morpheme added to the stam. to change its form, Inflections are most typical of synthetic language.

Like Russian and German. In English they are also used but the number of inflections is very limited here and as a consequence there are many homonyms among them.

E.g -s-case, person, number

-ed past,part.2.

-en number, past

Suppletivism is not so popular as inflections and it's used in some historically predetermed words. Neologisms never use this way of form changing.

E.g go-went

The origin of suppletivism is connected with old English synonyms. That based in one word. OE-wendan-wander

Suppletive forms should correspond to 2 criteria.1) they should have absolutely identical lexical meaning.2) they shouldn't be any other way to express this grammatical meaning in the system of language.

E.g go-present, went- past, am-sing, are-pl.

Sound alternation is very popular is Germanic languages. It's used mostly in nouns and verbs

e.g tooth-teeth, give-gave.

There are 3 types of it: vowel, consonants, mixed types.

Analytical forms have 2 or more elements but they all make one word.(is reading, has been done, will have been done)

Only one lexical meaning is present here and it's expressed in the final component. Such forms use grammatical elements that are called-auxiliary verbs. Such mechanism is typical of analytical languages. In English -passive, continuous, perfect, future, suppositional and conditional mood are formed only analytically . Synthetic languages use such formes very seldom. In Russian: future буду читать, degrees of comparison ,более умный-самый умный and passive form-было сделано

If some grammar category is used not logically but for the sale of formal syntactical agreement of words.

2.formal -proper(reflective) e.g. Круглый-круглые

Next classification

1. Fixed/constant(classifying)

2. Changeable/variable(form-changing)

Fixed category demands that all its forms always preserves this category e.g in Russia-conjugation(спряж),declination(склон)

Changeable category is those that are revield only in some forms. E.g. Case and number.

Next classification

Overt

2. Covert(crypto types)

Overt categories are always expressed formally. They have grammar market(flexion)

Covert have some definite grammar meaning, but it's expressed not morphologically. In English there is a class of functional words to denote the meaning of differentness or indefiniteness

This means that in English nouns have this category as a overt one.

In language where articles are not used. the same meaning (defin-indefin,can be expressed lexically(некий,такой)syntactically(самолет прилетел-прилетел самолет) but not morphologically.

The category of definit-indefinit in Russia is covert.e.g transitivity of words.

Next classification

1. Morphological(referring to parts of speech: number, tense, degrees of comparison)

2. Syntactic(transitivity-intersitivity,coordinativity-subordinativity,predicativity,modality)

Grammatical oppositions

One and the same form unites several grammatical meaning at once. It's typical of all festive languages and it's called synchreticism

e.g. He runs-i run(third person) they run(singular) he ran(non-past)

The form "runs" is synchratic because it has meanings of third person singular, present, and indefinite at once. Each couple of forms meles an opposition where all grammatical meanings coincide with the exception of only one and this distinctive meaning gives the name to this opposition.

The forms here are called opposeme. Such oppositions constitute grammatical categories first the notion of opposition was introduced by Trubetskoy in reference to phonology but later Roman, Yakobson extended the theory of opposition to grammar.

Oppositions can be 3 types.

1.private(privative) always binary in structure.

Marked and not marked.

It can be singular(not marked) and plural (marked) ,active (non) and passive(marked)

2. Gradual -three is minimum, all the numbers are marked.

Positive-comparative e.g clever-cleverer-the cleverest

3. Equipollent(равнозначный)

Grammatical oppositions serve as a basic for grammar category.

grammatical category are divided according to 4 principles: the first is relation to extra linguistic phenomena (reality) if we find such link so the category can be logically explained and he this case it is called

1.formal-logical(immanent)

e.g any real action can be past, present and future, so the category of tense is a logical category or number of nouns (table-tables)

 Reduction of grammar opposition

The theory of grammar opposition is connected with Trybetskoy's phonological theory but the common lose of this theory can be acclicable to grammar. This was done by professor Jakobson. Now it's being developed and prof. Block formulated the law of reduction of grammar oppositions.

Reduction is the use of one opposeme instead of the other when the whole opposition looses its distinctive force.

E.g. Грипп-гриб(phonemes are different but we don't hear it.

Reduction can be of 2 types.

1.neutralization(disappearance of one of the forms for some words or constructions)

a)cutsom-customs(обычаи), customs(таможня) no singular form!!!!

Also: words of Pluralia and Singularia tantum

b) disappearance of Future for clauses of time and condition

e.g. I'll be here when he comes(logical future) i don't know when he will come(logical future)

2. Transposition(the use of some grammar form in unusual environment for changing lexical meaning or creating some stylistic effect)

In stylistically marked context in most languages the plural form should be used instead of singular e.g. We Elizabeth the 2...

a) Descending type(низходящий) (marked instead of unmarked)

e.g. Snows, waters, sands(logical uncontability)

In these words the morpheme "s" is lexicalized and got the meaning of a big amount of substance

b)Ascending type(unmarked instead of marked) e.g many a day(logical plural-archaic style)

Анна Ахматова великий русский поэт.