External means of enriching vocabulary

The principal means of enriching vocabulary in Middle English are not internal, but external — borrowings. Two languages in succession enriched the vocabulary of the English language of the time — the Scandinavian language and the French language, the nature of the borrowings and their amount reflecting the conditions of the contacts between the English and these languages.

— Scandinavian borrowings

The Scandinavian invasion and the subsequent settlement of the Scandinavians on the territory of England, the constant contacts and intermixture of the English and the Scandinavians brought about many changes in different spheres of the English language: wordstock, grammar and phonetics. The relative ease of the mutual penetration of the languages was conditioned by the circumstances o\' the Anglo-Scandinavian contacts.

Due to contacts between the Scandinavians and the English-speaking people many words were borrowed from the Scandinavian language, for example:

Nouns: law, fellow, sky, skirt, skill, Adjectives: big, week, wrong, ugly, twin

Verbs: call, cast, take, happen, Pronouns: they, them, their The conditions and the consequences of various borrowings were different.

1. Sometimes the English language borrowed a word for which it had no synonym. These words were simply added to the vocabulary. Examples: law, fellow

2.The English synonym was ousted by the borrowing. Scandinavian taken(to take) and callen(to call) ousted the English synonyms nitnanand clypian,respectively.

3. Both the words, the English and the corresponding Scandinavian, are preserved, but they became different in meaning. Compare Modern English native words and Scandinavian borrowings:

heaven                    .         sky

4. Sometimes a borrowed word and an English word are etymological doublets, as words originating from the same source in Common Germanic.

shirt                                   skirt

5. Sometimes an English word and its Scandinavian doublet were the same in meaning but slightly different phonetically, and the phonetic form of the Scandinavian borrowing is preserved in the English language, having ousted the English counterpart. For example, Modern English to give, to getcome from the Scandinavian gefa,geta, which ousted the English 3iefanand 3ietan. respectively. Similar Modern English words: gift, forget, guild, gate, again.

6. There may be a shift of meaning. Thus, the word dreamoriginally meant "joy, pleasure"; under the influence of the related Scandinavian word it developed its modern meaning.

— French borrowings

It stands to reason that the Norman conquest and the subsequent history of the country left deep traces in the English language, mainly in the form of borrowings in words connected with such spheres of social and political activity where French-speaking Normans had occupied for a long time all places of importance. For example:

— government and legislature: government, noble, baron, prince, duke, court, justice, judge, etc.

— military life: army, battle, peace, banner, victory, general, colonel, lieutenant, major, etc.

— religion: religion, sermon, prey, saint, charity

— relationship: aunt, uncle, nephew, cousin.

The place of the French borrowings within the English language was different: 1.A word may be borrowed from the French language to denote notions unknown to the English up to the time: government, parliament, general, colonel, etc. 2. The English synonym is ousted by the French borrowing:

English         French

ea                 river

3. Both the words are preserved, but they are stylistically different:

English         French

to begin         to commence

As we see, the French borrowing is generally more literary or even bookish, .the English word - a common one; but sometimes the English word is more literary.

4.Sometimes the English language borrowed many words with the same word-building affix. The meaning of the affix in this case became clear to the English-speaking people. It entered the system of word-building means of the English language, and they began to add it to English words, thus forming word-hybrids. For instance, the suffix -mententered the language within such words as "government", "parliament", "agreement", but later there appeared such English-French hybrids as:

fulfilment, amazement.

The suffix -ance/-ence,which was an element of such borrowed words as "innocence", "ignorance", "repentance", now also forms word-hybrids, such as

hindrance.

7. There are calques on the French phrase:

Out of doubt -  Hors de doute.