SD Based on Compositional Patterns of Syntactical Arrangement (Enumeration; Suspence; Climax/Gradation; Antithesis).

Stylistic devices (tropes, figures of speech) unlike expressive means are not language phenomena. They are formed in speech and most of them do not exist out of context. According to principles of their formation, stylistic devices are grouped into phonetic, lexico-semantic and syntactic types. Basically, all stylistic devices are the result of revaluation of neutral words, word-combinations and syntactic structures. Revaluation makes language units obtain connotations and stylistic value. A stylistic device is the subject matter of stylistic semasiology.

Metaphor is a stylistic device based on interaction between the logical & contextual meanings of the word which is based on likeness between objects & implies analogy & comparison between them. The basis of metaphor is the mental process of comparison, but, unlike in simile, in metaphor the ground of comparison is never stated openly. Metaphors can be embodied in all the basic parts of speech—nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. The stylistic functions of the metaphor: 1) by evoking images & suggesting analogies it makes the author's thought more concrete definite & clear.2) it reveals the author's emotional attitude towards the described. Varieties of metaphors: 1) personification - a special kind of metaphor in which abstract ideas or inanimate objects r identified with person. 2) animalification - a special kind of M. in which abstract ideas or inanimate objects are identified with the beasts. Metaphors may be classified according to a number of principles. 1. According to the pragmatic effect produced upon the addressee metaphors are subdivided into trite (or dead) and genuine (or original). Dead metaphors are fixed in dictionaries. They often sound banal and hackneyed, like cliches: to prick up one's ears; the apple of one's eye; to burn with desire. Original metaphors are not registered in dictionaries. They are created in speech by speakers' imagination. They sound fresh and expressive, unexpected and unpredictable: Some books are to be tasted, others swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested 2. According to the degree of their stylistic potential metaphors are classified into nominational, cognitive and imaginative (or figurative). Nominational metaphors do not render any stylistic information. They are intended to name new objects or phenomena of the objective world: the foot of the hill. When an object obtains a quality which is typical of another object, cognitive metaphor is formed: One more day has died. The most expressive kind of metaphor is imaginative metaphor: Time was bleeding away. If there is enough rain, the land will shout with grass. 3. Metaphors may be also classified according to their structure (or according to complexity of image created). There are such metaphors as simple (or elementary) and prolonged (or sustained). A simple metaphor consists of a single word or word-combination expressing indiscrete notion: The leaves were falling sorrowfully. A sustained metaphor appears in cases when a word which has been used metaphorically makes other words of the sentence or paragraph also realize their metaphoric meanings: Metaphor is one of the most powerful means of creating images. Its natural sphere of usage is poetry and elevated prose.

To the group of compositional patterns of syntactical arrangement belong such syntactical SD as repetition, enumeration and suspense.

Suspense- is a compositional device which is realized through the separation of the Predicate from the Subject by deliberate introduction between them of a clause or a sentence. Thus the reader's interest is held up. This device is typical of oratoric style. To keep the reader in uncertainty and expectation. - I have been accused of bad taste. This has disturbed me, not so much for my own sake as for the sake of criticism in general.

Enumeration is a SD which separates things, properties or actions brought together and forms a chain of grammatically and semantically homogeneous parts of the utterance.

- She wasn't sure of anything and more, of him, herself, their friends, her work, her future.

Repetition as a stylistic device is a direct successor of repetition as an expressive language means, which serves to emphasize certain statements of the speaker, and so possesses considerable emotive force.

 As to the position occupied by the repeated unit in the sentence or utterance, we shall mention four main types, most frequently occurring in English literature:

1) anaphora – the repetition of the first word of several succeeding sentences or clauses (a …, a …, a …); 2) epiphora – the repetition of the final word (… a, … a, … a); 3) anadiplosis or catch repetition – the repetition of the same unit (word or phrase) at the end of the preceding and at the beginning of the sentence (…a, a …); The combination of several catch repetitions produces a chain repetition. 4) framingor ring repetition – the repetition of the same unit at the beginning and at the end of the same sentence (a …, … a). Repetition emphasizes the most important part of the utterance, rendering the emotions of the speaker or showing his emotive attitude towards the object described.

 Types of lexical repetitions: 1)pleonasm- the use of more words in the sentence then necessary to express the meaning, 2)tautology - the repetition of the same word/phrase or the same idea or statement in other words often in different grammatical forms.

Climax and antithesis belong to the 1^st group of syntactical SD. According to Galperin this group is called compositional patterns of syntactical arrangement.

Climax (gradation) - an ascending series of words or utterances in which intensity or significance increases step by step. Every racing car, every racer, every mechanic, every ice - cream van was also plastered with advertising.

Climax presents a structure in which every successive sentence or phrase is emotionally stronger or logically more important than the preceding one. Such an organization of the utterance creates a gradual intensification of its significance, both logical and emotive, and absorbs the reader’s attention more completely.  Climax may be of three main types:

1) quantitative, when it is quality or size that increases with the unfolding of the utterance.

2) qualitative, when intensification is achieved through the introduction of emphatic words into the utterance, which fact increases its emotive force.

3) logical, the most frequent type, in which every new concept is stronger, more important and valid.

 A peculiar variety is presented in those cases when a negative structure undergoes intensification. As counterpart to climax stands Anticlimax, where emotion or logical importance is accumulated only to be unexpectedly broken and brought to a sudden cadence.

Silence fell upon Closter. Place, peace, oblivion.”

Antithesis is a SD based on the author's desire to stress certain qualities of the thing by appointing it to another thing possessing antagonistic features. They speak like saints and act like devils.

Antithesis is a stylistic device presenting two contrasting ideas in a close neighborhood. The phenomena opposed to one another can be pictured in an extended way. Or else the contradictory ideas may intermingle, thus creating the effect of not only the contrast, but also of the close unity of the contrasting features. The smell of life and richness, of death and digestion, of decay and birth, burden the air.

6)SD Based on Compositional Patterns of Syntactical Arrangement (Parallel Constructions; Chiasmus/Reversed Parallel Construction; Repetition and Its Patterns).

The structural syntactical aspect is sometimes regarded as the crucial issue in stylistic analysis. Structural syntactical stylistic d e v i с е s are in special relations with the intonation involved. Prof. Peshkovsky points out that there is an interdependence between the intonation and syntactical properties of the sentence, which may be worded in the following manner: the more explicitly the structural syntactical relations are expressed, the weaker will be the intonation-pattern of the utterance.

As it is known, the English affirmative sentence is regarded as neutral if it maintains the regular word order. Any other order of the parts of the sentence may also carry the necessary information, but the impact on the reader will be different.

When viewing the stylistic functions of different snt designs we must first of all take into consideration two aspects:

1. The juxtaposition of different parts of the utterance. 2. The way the parts are connected with each other.

In addition to these 2 large groups of EMs and SDs 2 other groups may be distinguished:

3. Those based on the peculiar use of colloquial constructions. 4. Those based on the stylistic use of structural meaning.

Parallel construction is a device which may be encountered not so much in the sen-ce as in the macro-structures the SPU and the paragraph. The necessary condition in parallel construction is identical, or similar, syntactical structure in two or more sentences or parts of a sentence in close succession, as in:

"There were, ..., real silver spoons to stir the tea with, and real china cups to drink it out of, and plates of the same to hold the cakes and toast in." (Dickens)

Parallel constructions are often backed up by repetition of words (lexical repetition) and conjunctions and prepositions. Pure parallel construction, however, does not depend on any other kind of repetition but the repetition of the syntactical design of the sen-ce. Parallel constructions may be partial or complete. Partial parallel arrangement is the repetition of some parts of successive sentences or clauses. Complete parallel arrangement, also called balance, maintains the principle of identical structures throughout the corresponding sentences.

Parallel construction is most frequently used in enumeration, antithesis and in climax, thus consolidating the general effect achieved by these stylistic devices. It should also be stated that the device of parallelism always generates rhythm, inasmuch as similar syntactical structures repeat in close succession.

Chiasmus (Reversed Parallel Construction)is based on the repetition of the syntactical pattern, but it has a cross order of words or phrases. The structure of one sentence or part of it is inverted as compared with that of the other. Chiasmus is sometimes achieved by a sudden change from active to passive and vice versa. This device is effective in that it helps to lay stress on the second part of the utterance, which is opposite in structure. This is due to the sudden change in the structure which by its very unexpectedness linguistically requires a slight pause before it.

Chiasmus can appear only when there are two successive sentences or coordinate parts of a sentence. So distribution, here close succession, is the factor which predetermines the birth of the device.

Repetition as a SD which serves to emphasize certain statements of the speaker, and so possesses considerable emotive force. The SD of repetition aims at logical emphasis, an emphasis necessary to fix the "attention of the reader on the key-word of the utterance, not on the emotional impact. It is not only a single word that can be repeated but a word combination and a whole sentence too. As to the position occupied by the repeated unit in the sentence or utterance, we shall mention four main types, most frequently occurring in English literature:

Anaphora – the repetition of the first word of several succeeding sentences or clauses (a …, a …, a …);

Epiphora – the repetition of the final word (… a, … a, … a);

Anadiplosis or catch repetition – the repetition of the same unit (word or phrase) at the end of the preceding and at the beginning of the sentence (…a, a …); The combination of several catch repetitions produces a chain repetition.

Framing or ring repetition – the repetition of the same unit at the beginning and at the end of the same sentence (a …, … a)

Another variety of repetition may be called synonymic repetition. This is the repetition of the same idea by using synonymous words and phrases which by adding a slightly different nuance of meaning intensify the impact of the utterance, as in.

"...are there not capital punishments sufficient in your statutes'? Is there not blood enough upon your

'There are two terms frequently used to show the negative attitude of the critic to all kinds of synonymic repetitions. These are pleonasm and tautology. The Shorter Oxford Dictionary defines pleonasm as "the use of more words in a sentence than are necessary to express the meaning; redundancy of expression." Tautology is defined as "the repetition of the same statement".

7)Syntactical EM and SD (General Considerations). SD Based on Compositional Patterns of Syntactical Arrangement (The Paragraph. Stylistic Inversion. Detached Constructions).

The branch of l-ge science which studies the types of relations between the units enumerated is called syntax. The examination of syntax provides a deeper insight into the stylistic aspect of utterances.

The Paragraph is a graphical term used to name a group of sentences marked off by indentation at the beginning and a break in the line at the end. This term has come to mean a distinct portion of a written discourse showing an eternal unity.

As a linguistic category the paragraph is a unit of utterance marked off by purely linguistic means: intonation, pauses of various lengths, semantic ties which can be disclosed by scrupulous analysis of the morphological aspect and meaning of the component parts, etc. The logical aspect of the utterance will always be backed up by purely linguistic means causing, as it were, an indivisible unity of extralinguistic and intralinguistic approach. The paragraph is a linguistic expression of a logical, pragmatic, and aesthetic arrangement of thought.

Paragraph structure is not always built on logical principles alone, as is generally the case in the style of scientific prose. In newspaper style, other requirements are taken into consideration (for instance, psychological principle, the sensational effect of communication, grasping capacity of the reader, consideration of space (which sometimes results in breaking the unity of idea). Paragraph building in the style of official documents is mainly governed by the particular conventional forms of documents. The paragraphs may have a number of parallel clauses, made formally subordinated, though in reality they are independent items. Paragraph structure in the belle-lettres and publicistic styles is strongly affected by the purport of the author.

The length of the paragraph is normally 8-12 sentences. In newspapers a paragraph may consist of 13 sentences. Models of paragraphs built on different principles:

1) from the general to the particular, or from the particular to the general; 2) on the inductive or deductive principle; 3)from cause to effect, or from effect to cause; 4)on contrast, or comparison.

So the paragraph is a compositional device aiming at facilitating the progress of apprehending what is written, or inducing a certain reaction on the part of the reader.

Stylistic Inversion. Word-order is a crucial syntactical problem in many languages. The English “tolerably fixed word-order” (Jespersen) is S – V – O. This traditional WO has developed a definite intonation design. But sometimes the WO changes while the intonation pattern remains.

Stylistic inversion, unlike grammatical one, does not change the structural meaning of the sentence. Stylistic inversion aims at attaching logical stress or additional emotional colouring to the surface meaning of the utterance. Therefore a specific intonation pattern is inevitably satellite of inversion.

The patterns of stylistic inversion: 1)The Object is placed at the beginning of the sentence (Talent Mr. Micawber has; capital Mr. Micawber has not); 2)The attribute is placed after the word it modifies (With fingers weary and worn… T. Hood); 3)The predicative is placed before the subject or it is before the link-verb and both are placed before the subject: Rude am I in my speech (Shakespear); 4)The adverbial modifier is placed at the beginning of the sentence: Eagerly I wished the morrow (Poe); 5)Both modifier and predicate stand before the subject: In went Mr. Pickwick (Dickens)

Inversion as a stylistic device is always sense-motivated. It is sometimes accounted by rhythmical consideration. Inversion is one of the forms of what are known as emphatic constructions. What is traditionally called traditional word-order is unemphatic construction.

Detached constructions:Sometimes one of the secondary parts of a sentence is placed so that it seems formally independent of the word it logically refers to. They are detached. This part assumes a great degree of significance and is given prominence by intonation. There are detached constructions where an attribute or an adverbial modifier is placed not in immediate proximity to its referent, but in some other position.

The isolated parts represent a kind of independent whole thrust into the sentence or placed in a position which will make the phrase seem independent. It is always secondary from the semantic point of view, though it structurally possesses all the features of a primary member.

A variant of a detached construction is called parenthesis. It is a word, phrase, clause or sentence which interrupts a syntactic construction without otherwise affecting it. It sometimes embodies a considerable volume of predicativeness.

8)Stylistic Classification of the English Vocabulary. Special Literary Vocabulary, Archaic. Obsolescent and Obsolete Words (Literary Coinages/Nonce Words).

The vocabulary of the language is presented as a system, the elements of which are interconnected, interrelated and yet independent. The word-stock of a l-ge may be presented as a definite system in which different aspects of words may be singled out as interdependent. A special branch of linguistic science – lexicology – has done much to classify vocabulary. In accordance with the division of language into literary and colloquial, we may represent the whole of the word-stock of the English l-ge as being divided into 3 main layers: the literary layer, the neutral layer and the colloquial layer. The literary and the colloquial layers contain a number of subgroups each of which has a property it shares with all the subgroups within the layer. The common property is the aspect. The aspect of the literary layer is its bookish character, of the colloquial layer – its lively spoken character, of the neutral layer – its universal character.

The neutral layeris the most stable of all, it is unrestricted in its use. It can be employed in all styles of l-ge and in all spheres of human activity. The literary layer consists of groups of words accepted as legitimate members of the English vocabulary. They have no local or dialectal character. The colloquial layer of words is not infrequently limited to a definite language community or confined to a special locality where it circulates.

The literary vocabulary consists of the following groups: 1) common literary, 2) terms and learned words, 3) poetic words, 4) archaic words, 5) barbarisms and foreign words, 6) literary coinages including nonce-words.

The common literary, neutral and common colloquial words are grouped under the term standard English vocabulary. Other groups in the literary layer are regarded as special literary vocabulary and those in the colloquial layer are regarded as special colloquial (non-literary) vocabulary.

The word-stock of a language is in an increasing state of change. Words change their meaning and sometimes drop out of the language altogether. New words spring up and replace the old ones. Some words stay in the l-ge a very long time and do not lose their faculty of gaining new meanings and becoming richer and richer polysemantically. Other words live but a short time and are like bubbles on the surface of water – they disappear leaving no trace of their existence. We shall distinguish three stages in the aging process of words:

The beginning of the aging process when the word becomes rarely used. Such words are called obsolescent, i.e. they are in the stage of gradually passing out of general use. To this category 1^st of all belong morphological forms belonging to the earlier stages in the development of the l-ge. In the English language these are the pronouns thou and its forms thee, thy and thine; the corresponding verbal ending –est and the verb-forms art, wilt (thou makest, thou wilt); the ending -(e)th instead of -(e)s (he maketh) and the pronoun ye.            To the category of obsolescent words belong many French borrowings which have been kept in the literary language as a means of preserving the spirit of earlier periods, e. g. a pallet (=a straw mattress); a palfrey (=a small horse); garniture (=furniture); to emplume (=to adorn with feathers or plumes).

The second group of archaic words are those that have already gone, completely out of use but are still recognized by the English-speaking community: e. g. methinks (=it seems to me); nay (=no). These words are called obsolete.

The third group, which may be called arсhaiс proper, are words which are no longer recognizable in modern English, words that were in use in OE and which have either dropped out of the language entirely or have changed in their appearance so much that they have become unrecognizable, e.g. troth (=faith); a losel (=a worthless, lazy fellow).

The border lines between the groups are not distinct. It’s especially difficult to distinguish between obsolete and obsolescent words. But the difference is important when we come to deal with the stylistic aspect of an utterance in which the given word serves a certain stylistic purpose. Obsolete and obsolescent words have separate functions.

There is still another class of words which is erroneously classed as archaic, viz. historical words. By-gone periods in the life of any society are marked by historical events and by institutions, customs, material objects, etc. which are no longer in use, for example: Thane, yeoman, goblet, baldric, mace. Words of this type never disappear from the language. They are historical terms and remain as terms referring to definite stages in the development of society and cannot therefore be dispensed with, though the things and phenomena to which they refer have long passed into oblivion. Historical words have no synonyms, whereas archaic words have been replaced by modern synonyms.

Archaic words are primarily and predominantly used in the creation of a realistic background to historical novels. It must be pointed out, however, that the use of historical words (terms) in a passage written in scientific style, say, in an essay on the history of the Danish invasion, will bear no stylistic function at all. But the same terms when used in historical novels assume a different stylistic value. They carry, as it were, a special volume of information adding to the logical aspect of the communication.

This, the main function of archaisms, finds different interpretation in different novels by different writers

Besides the function just mentioned, archaic words and phrases have other functions found in other styles. They are, first of all, frequently to be found in the style of official documents. In business letters, in legal language, in all kinds of statutes, in diplomatic documents and in all kinds of legal documents one can find obsolescent words which would long ago have become obsolete if it were not for the preserving power of the special use within the above-mentioned spheres of communication. It is the same with archaic and obsolete words in poetry. As has already been pointed out, they are employed in the poetic style as special terms and hence prevented from dropping completely out of the language.

Among the obsolescent elements of the English vocabulary preserved within the style of official documents, the following may be mentioned: aforesaid, hereby, therewith, hereinaftenamed.

The function of archaic words and constructions in official documents is terminological in character. They are used here because they help to maintain that exactness of expression so necessary in this style.

Archaic words and particularly archaic forms of words are sometimes used for satirical purposes. This is achieved through what is called Anticlimax.

9)SD Based on Peculiar Use of Set Expressions. (The Cliché. Proverbs and Sayings. Epigrams).

A cliché is generally defined as an expression that has become hackneyed and trite. A cliché strives after originality, whereas it has lost the aesthetic generating power it once had. There is always a contradiction between what is aimed at and what is actually attained. Examples of real clichés are 'rosy dreams of youth', 'the patter of little feet', 'deceptively simple'.

All word-combinations that do not surprise are labeled as clichés. If we agree with such an understanding of the term, we must admit that the following stable and necessary word-combinations used in newspaper language must be viewed as clichés: 'effective guarantees', 'immediate issues', 'the whip and carrot policy, 'he laid it down equally clearly that...' and so on.

However, at every period in the development of a language, there appear strange combinations of words which arouse suspicion as to their meaning and connotation. Many of the new-born word-combinations in modern English, both in their American and British variants, have been made fun of because their meaning is still obscure, and therefore they are used rather loosely. Recently in the NY Times such clichés as 'growing awareness', 'rising expectations', ‘to think unthinkable thoughts' and others were wittily criticized by a journalist who showed that ordinary rank-and-file American people do not understand these new word-combinations, just as they fail to un­derstand certain neologisms, as opt (= to make a choice), and revived words, as deem (= to consider, to believe to be) and others and reject them or use them wrongly.

Proverbs and sayings are facts of language, there are special dictionaries of them. It is impossible to arrange proverbs and sayings in a form that would present a pattern even though they have some typical features by which it is 1 possible to determine whether or not we are dealing with one. These typical features are: rhythm, sometimes rhyme and/or alliteration. But the most characteristic feature of a proverb or a saying lies not in its formal linguistic expression, but in the content-form of the utterance.

A proverb or a saying is a peculiar mode of utterance which is mainly characterized by its brevity. The utterance itself presents a pattern which can be successfully used for other utterances. In its use a proverb itself becomes a vessel into which new content is poured. That is why we may regard the proverb as a pattern of thought.

Proverbs and sayings have certain purely linguistic features which [must always be taken into account in order to distinguish them from ordinary sentences. Proverbs are brief statements showing in condensed form the accumulated life experience of the community and serving as conventional practical symbols for abstract ideas. They are usually didactic and image bearing. Many of them through frequency of repeti­tion have become polished and wrought into verse-like shape.

But the main feature distinguishing proverbs and sayings from or­dinary utterances remains their semantic aspect. Proverbs and sayings, if used appropriately, will never lose their freshness and vigour. The most no­ticeable thing about the functioning of sayings, proverbs and catch-phrases is that they may be handled not in their fixed form (the tradi­tional model) but with modifications. These modifications, however, will never break away from the invariants to such a degree that the cor­relation between the invariant model of a word-combination and its variant ceases to be perceived by the reader. The predictability of a variant of a word-combination is lower in comparison with its invariant.

 When a prov­erb is used in its unaltered form it can be qualified as an expressive means (EM) of the language; when used in a modified variant it assumes the one of the features of an SD, it acquires a stylistic meaning, though not becoming an SD. We shall take only a few of the numerous examples of the stylistic use of proverbs and sayings to illustrate the possible ways of decomposing the units in order simply to suggest the idea behind them: "Come!" he said, "milk's spilt." (Galsworthy) (from 'It is no use crying over spilt milk!').

An epigram is a stylistic device akin to a proverb, the only difference being that epigrams are coined by individuals whose names we know, while proverbs are the coinage of the people. Epigrams always have a literary-bookish air about them that distinguishes them from proverbs. Epigrams possess a great degree of independence and therefore, if taken out of the context, will retain the wholeness of the idea they express. They have a generaliz­ing function and are self-sufficient. The most characteristic feature of an epigram is that the sentence gets accepted as a word-combination and often becomes part of the language as a whole. Like proverbs, epigrams can be expanded to apply to abstract notions (thus embodying different spheres of application). Brevity is the essential quality of the epigram. Epigrams are often confused with aphorisms and paradoxes. It is dif­ficult to draw a demarcation line between them, the distinction being very subtle. Real epigrams are true to fact and that is why they win general recognition and acceptance.

There are utterances which in form are epigrammatic—these are verses and in particular definite kinds of verses. The last two lines of a sonnet are called epigrammatic because, according to the semantic structure of this form of verse, they sum up and synthesize what has been said before.

There are special dictionaries which are called "Dictionaries of Quota­tions." These, in fact, are mostly dictionaries of epigrams. What is worth quoting must always contain some degree of the generalizing quality and if it comes from a work of poetry will have metre (and sometimes rhyme). Poetry is epigrammatic in essence. It always strives for brevity of expression, leaving to the mind of the reader the pleasure of amplifying the idea.

10)Stylistic Classification of the English Vocabulary. Special Colloquial Vocabulary. (Dialectal Words. Vulgar Words or Vulgarisms. Colloquial Coinages).

The vocabulary of the language is presented as a system, the elements of which are interconnected, interrelated and yet independent. The word-stock of a l-ge may be presented as a definite system in which different aspects of words may be singled out as interdependent. A special branch of linguistic science – lexicology – has done much to classify vocabulary. In accordance with the division of language into literary and colloquial, we may represent the whole of the word-stock of the English l-ge as being divided into 3 main layers: the literary layer, the neutral layer and the colloquial layer. The literary and the colloquial layers contain a number of subgroups each of which has a property it shares with all the subgroups within the layer. The common property is the aspect. The aspect of the literary layer is its bookish character, of the colloquial layer – its lively spoken character, of the neutral layer – its universal character.

The neutral layer is the most stable of all, it is unrestricted in its use. It can be employed in all styles of l-ge and in all spheres of human activity. The literary layer consists of groups of words accepted as legitimate members of the English vocabulary. They have no local or dialectal character. The colloquial layer of words is not infrequently limited to a definite language community or confined to a special locality where it circulates.

The literary vocabulary consists of the following groups: 1) common literary, 2) terms and learned words, 3) poetic words, 4) archaic words, 5) barbarisms and foreign words, 6) literary coinages including nonce-words. The colloquial vocabulary falls into the following groups: 1) common colloquial words, 2) slang, 3) jargonisms, 4) professional words, 5) dialectal words, 6) vulgar words, 7) colloquial coinages.

The common literary, neutral and common colloquial words are grouped under the term standard English vocabulary. Other groups in the literary layer are regarded as special colloquial (non-literary) vocabulary.

Dialectal words are those which in the process of integration of the English national language remained beyond its literary boundaries, and either use is generally confined to a definite locality. There is sometimes a difficulty in distinguishing dialectal words from colloquial words. Some dialectal words have become so familiar in good colloquial or standard colloquial English that they are universally accepted as recognized units of the standard colloquial English. (e.g. lass – a girl or a beloved girl; lad – a boy or a young man)

Many dialectal words come from the Scottish and the northern dialects. Scotland has struggled to retain the peculiarities of its language. Among other dialects used for stylistic purposes in literature is the southern dialect. (e.g. volk – folk, zee – see).

Dialectal words are only to be found in the style of emotive prose (to characterize the speech of a person), very rarely in other styles. Dialectal words, unlike professionalisms, are confined in their use to a definite locality and most of the words deal with everyday life of the country.

The term vulgarism is used to single out a definite group of words in non-standard English. Vulgar words are marked by coarseness of speech or expression, they are indecent, crude or offensive in language. Vulgarisms are 1) expletives (ругательства) and swear words which are of an abusive character, like ‘damn’, ‘bloody’, ‘to hell’, ‘goddam’ etc. 2) obscene words, known as four-letter words the use of which is banned in any form of intercourse as being indecent. All of these words are of Anglo-Saxon origin. Vulgarisms are often used in conversation out of habit, without a thought of what they mean. Although in modern fiction these words have gained legitimacy, they will never acquire the status of standard English vocabulary.

The function of vulgarisms is to express strong emotions, mainly annoyance, anger, vexation and the like. They are not to be found in any fictional style of language except emotive prose, and here only in the direct speech of the characters.

Colloquial coinages (nonce words) are spontaneous and elusive. Not all of them are fixed in dictionaries and most of them disappear from the language leaving no trace in it whatsoever. Colloquial coinages are not usually built by means of affixes but are based on certain semantic changes in words. It is only a careful stylistic analysis of the utterance as a whole that will reveal a new shade of meaning inserted into the semantic structure of a given word or word combination. New literary coinages will always bear the brand of individual creation. The meaning of literary coinages can easily be grasped by the reader because of the use of the productive means of word-building, and also from the context. This is not the case with colloquial nonce-words.

The unexpectedness of some of the changes is really striking and can be accounted for only by the shift of the sphere of usage from literary to colloquial. Some nonce-words and meanings may, on the one hand, become facts of the language, while, on the other hand, they may be classified as literary or colloquial according to which of the meanings is being dealt with. The ways and means of semantic change are sometimes really mysterious. (e.g. ‘sophisticated’ started to mean ‘highly complex mechanically’, ‘requiring skilled control’). Nonce-coinages appear in all spheres of life.