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SD Based on Stylistic Use of Structural Meaning (Rhetorical Questions; Litotes)




Structural meaning is another name of grammatical meaning. Gr. meaning refers our mind to relations be­tween words or to some forms of-words or constructions bearing upon their structural functions in the language-as-a-system.       There are no words which are deprived of grammatical meaning inas­much as all words belong to some system and consequently have their place in the system, and also inasmuch as they always function in speech displaying their functional properties. It is the same with sentences. Every sentence has its own independent structural meaning. This struc­tural meaning may in some cases be influenced or affected by the lexi­cal meanings of the components or by intonation.

Rhetorical Questionis a special snt SD the essence of which consists in reshaping the grammatical meaning of the interrogative sentence. In other words, the question is no longer a question but a statement expressed in the form of an interrogative sentence.  Rh. Q. may be defined as an utterance in the form of a question which pronounces judgments and also expresses different kinds of modal shades of meaning (irony, doubt). ? And yet, where was the Jane Eyre yesterday? Where was her life? Where were her prospects?

There is a structural pattern of rhetorical questions, which is based on negation. Negative-interrogative sentences generally have a peculiar nature. There is always an additional shade of meaning implied in them: sometimes doubt, statement, suggestion. In other words, they are full of emotive meaning and modality.

Both the question-meaning and the statement-meaning are materialized with an emotional charge, the weight of which can be judged by the intonation of the speaker. Rhetorical questions, due to their power of expressing a variety of modal shades of meaning, are most often used in Publicistic style and particularly in oratory, where the rousing of emotions is the effect generally aimed at.

LITOTES is a two-component structure in which two negations are joined to give a positive evaluation. The first component of litotes is always the negative particle "not", while the second, always negative in semantics, varies in form from a negatively affixed word to a negative phrase.

Litotes is especially expressive when the semantic centre of the whole structure is stylistically or/and emotionally coloured, as in the case of the following occasional creations: "Her face was not unhandsome" (A.H.) or "Her face was not unpretty". (K.K.)

The function of litotes has much in common with that of understatement - to weaken the effect of the utterance. The uniqueness of litotes lies in its specific "double negative" structure and in its weakening only the positive evaluation. It is not a pure negation, but a negation that includes affirmation. Therefore here, as in the case of rhetorical questions, we may speak of transference of meaning, i. e. a device with the help of which two meanings are materialized simultaneously: the direct (negative) and transferred (affirmative). Litotes depends mainly on intonation.

Litotes is used in different styles of speech, excluding those which may be called the matter-of-fact styles, like official style and scientific prose. In poetry it is sometimes used to suggest that language fails to adequately convey the poet's feelings and therefore he uses negations to express the inexpressible.

 

2)SD Based on Peculiar Use of Colloquial Constructions (Represented Speech and Its Types: Uttered Represented Speech and Unuttered of Inner Represented Speech).

There are 3 ways of reproducing actual speech: a) repetition of the exact utterance as it was spoken (direct speech), b) conversion of the exact utterance into relater’s mode of expression (indirect speech), & c) representation of the actual utterance by a second person, usually the author, as if it had been spoken, whereas it has not really been spoken but is only represented in the author’s words (represented speech).

There is also a SD which conveys to the reader the unuttered or inner speech of the character, thus presenting his thoughts & feelings – it’s termed represented speech. We distinguish 2 varieties: the representation of the actual utterance through the author’s l-ge = uttered represented speech; the representation of the thoughts and feelings of the character = unuttered/inner represented speech.

Direct speech is actually a quotation. It’s always introduced by a verb like say/utter/declare/exclaim/shout/ cry/murmur/call/beg & others. DS is always marked by inverted commas. In the belles-lettres style DS is used to depict a character through his speech.

Uttered represented speech demands that the tense should be switched from present to past, the personal prns from 1st &2nd to 3rd person as in indirect speech, but the syntactical structure of the utterance doesn’t change. Nowadays the device is used not only in the belles-lettres style, but in newspaper as well.

The thoughts & feelings going on in one’s mind & reflecting some previous experience are called inner speech which is a psychological phenomenon. But when it is wrought into full utterance it acquires a communicative function & becomes a phenomenon of the l-ge. The reader is presented with a complete l-ge unit capable of carrying inf-n. This device is called inner represented speech. In.rep.sp retains the most characteristic features of inner sp. It is also fragmentary, but only to an extent which will not hinder the understanding of the communication. Inn.rep.sp unlike uttered rep.sp expresses feelings & thoughts of the character which were not materialized in spoken or written l-ge by the character. That is why it abounds in exclamatory words & phrases, elliptical constructions, breaks & other means of conveying feelings & psychological states. The tense forms are shifted to the past; the 3rd person personal prns replace the 1st & the 2nd.

 

3)SD Based on Peculiar Ways of Combining Parts of the Utterance (Asyndeton; Polysyndeton; the Gap-Sentence Link).

Asyndeton is connection between parts of a sentence or between sentences without any formal sign. It becomes a SD if there is a deliberate omission of the connective where it is generally expected to be according to the norms of the literary language. The boys all hated him, he was so good. In this sentence the conjunction “because” is omitted.

"Soames turned away; he had an utter disinclination for talk like one standing before an open grave, watching a coffin slowly lowered." (Galsworthy) The deliberate omission of the subordinate conjunction because or for makes the sentence 'he had an utter...' almost entirely independent.

Polysyndeton is the SD of connecting sentences, or phrases, or syntagms, or words by using connectives (mostly conjunc­tions and prepositions) before each component part, as in: She stirred the fire, and shut the door, and sat as near to it as she could, quite on the edge of her chair.

Parts of the sentence are connected with the same linking word. Rhythmical function: The repetition of conjunctions and other means of connection makes an utterance more rhythmical; so much so that prose may even seem like verse. The conjunctions and other connectives, being generally un­stressed elements, when placed before each meaningful member, will cause the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables — the essential requirement of rhythm in verse. Disintegrating function of polysyndeton. Enumeration shows things united; polysyndeton shows them iso­lated.

Gap-sentence link is a way of connecting two sentences seemingly unconnected and leaving it to the reader’s imagination to grasp the idea implied. She says nothing but it’s clear that she is harping on this engagement, and

It presents two utterances the second is brought into the focus of the reader's attention.

e. g. She and that fellow ought to be the sufferers, and they were in Italy.

As in many other cases, the device of GSL is deeply rooted in the norms of the spoken language. The possibility of filling in the semantic gap depends largely on associations awakened by the two sentences linked cumulatively. In the following utterance the connection between the two sentences needs no comment.

"It was an afternoon to dream. And she took out Jon's letters." (Galsworthy)

While maintaining the unity of the utterance syntactically the author leaves the interpretation of the link between the two sentences to the mind of the reader.

Functions: 1)to signal the introduction of inner represented speech; 2)to indicate a subjective evaluation of the facts; 3)to introduce an effect result­ing from a cause which has already had verbal expression.

In all these functions GSL displays an unexpected coupling of ideas. GSL aims at stirring up in the reader's mind the suppositions, associations and conditions under which the sentence uttered can really exist.

 

4)SD Based on Peculiar Ways of Colloquial Constructions (Ellipsis; Break-in-the-Narrative /Aposiopesis/; Questions-in-the-Narrative).

Among the cases of the particular use of colloq constructions are ellipsis, break-in-the-narrative, question-in-the-narrative & represented speech. Ellipsis is a typical phenomenon in the conversation, arising out of the situation. Ellipsis, when used as a stylistic device, always imitates the common features of colloq l-ge, where the situation predetermines not the omission of certain members of the s-ce, but their absence.

The ellipsis consists of three evenly spaced dots (periods) with spaces between the ellipsis and surrounding letters or other marks. Let's take the sentence, "The ceremony honored twelve brilliant athletes from the Caribbean who were visiting the U.S." and leave out "from the Caribbean who were": The ceremony honored twelve brilliant athletes … visiting the U.S.

The ellipsis can also be used to indicate a pause in the flow of a sentence and is especially useful in quoted speech: Juan thought and thought … and then thought some more. "I'm wondering …" Juan said, bemused.

If words are left off at the end of a sentence, and that is all that is omitted, indicate the omission with ellipsis marks (preceded and followed by a space) and then indicate the end of the sentence with a period … . If one or more sentences are omitted, end the sentence before the ellipsis with a period and then insert your ellipsis marks with a space on both sides. … As in this example. A coded ellipsis (used in the construction of this page) will appear tighter (with less of a space between the dots) than the use of period-space-period-space-period.

The ellipsis should be regarded as one unit and should not be broken at the end of a line. Toward that end, it is useful to know the code that will create an unbroken and unbreakable ellipsis for you on the word-processing program you are using. On most machines, it's a simple matter of holding down the option key and hitting the semicolon, but this varies from program to program. To avoid problems when you reformat a paper (change margins, font sizes, etc.), the spaces that surround the ellipsis should also be created as "non-breaking spaces."

Aposiopesis (break-in-the narrative) is a device which dictionaries define as a stopping short for rhetorical effect. In the spoken variety of the l-ge a br-in-the-nar is usually caused by unwillingness to proceed; or by the supposition that what remains to be said can be understood by the implication embodied in what has been said; or by uncertainty as to what should be said. In the written variety a br-in-the-nar is always a SD used for some stylistic effect. In writing it is the context which suggests the adequate intonation, that is the only key to decoding the aposiopesis.

A-s is a stylistic syntactical device to convey to the reader a very strong upsurge of emotions. The idea of it is that the speaker cannot proceed, his feelings depriving him of the ability to express himself in terms of l-ge. Smt a br-in-the-nar is caused by euphemistic considerations. Here the role of the intonation implied cannot be overestimated.

Question-in-the-narrative changes the real nature of a q-n & turns it into a stylistic device. A q-n in the nar is asked & answered by one & the same person, usually by the author. The q-ns asked unlike rhetorical q-ns do not contain statements. Sometimes q-in-the-nar gives the impression of an intimate talk b/w the writer & the reader.










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