Programs and Programming Languages

       Computers can deal with different kinds of problems if they are given the right instructions for what to do. Instructions are first written in one of the high-level languages, e.g. FORTRAN. COBOL. ALGOL, PL/I, PASCAL, BASIC, or C, depending on the type of problem to be solved. A program written in one of these languages is often called a source program, and it cannot be directly processed by the computer until и has been compiled, which means interpreted into machine code. Usually a single instruction written in a high-level language, when transformed into machine code, results in several instructions. Here is a brief description of some of the many high-level languages:

       FORTRANacronym for FORmula TRANslation. This language is used for solving scientific and mathematical problems. It-consists of algebraic formulae and English phrases. It was first introduced in the United States in 19 54.

       COBOLacronym for COmmon Business-Oriented Language. This language is used for commercial purposes. COBOL, which is written using English statements, deals with problems that do not involve a lot of mathematical calculations. It was first introduced in 1959.

       ALGOLacronym for ALGOrithmic Language. Originally called IAL, which means International Algebraic Language. It is used for mathematical and scientific purposes. ALGOL was first introduced in Europe in I960.

       PL/IProgramming Language I. Developed in 196-1 to combine features of COBOL and ALGOL. Consequently, it is used for data processing as well as scientific applications.

       BASICacronym for Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code. Developed in 1965 at Dartmouth College in the United States for use by students who require a simple language ю begin programming.

       С developed in the 1970s to support the UNIX operating system. С is a highly portable general-purpose language.

       Other such languages are APL (developed in 1962). PASCAL (named alter Blaise Pascal and developed in 1971)- and LISP and PROLOG, both of which are used for work in artificial intelligence, LOGO is a development of LISP which has been used to develop computer-based training (CBT) packages.

       When a program written in one of these high-level languages is designed to do a specific type of work such as calculate a company's payroll or calculate the stress factor on a roof, it is called an applications program. Institutions either purchase these programs as packages or commission their own programmers to write them to meet the specifications of the users.

Look through the text and find the passage where it is told about FORTRAN. Read this passage and translate in the written form.

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System and Application Software Packages

       Word processing. More than 85 percent of the personal computers now in existence are equipped with a word processing program, which transforms the computer into a tool for creating, editing, proofing, printing, and storing text. Many of today's books originated in text typed into computers—including this one

       Today's complex computer programs, such as Microsoft Word (a word processing program), consist of many separate programs that are designed to run together. In recognition of this fact, people sometimes speak of softwarepackages. When you buy Microsoft Word, you are actually buying a software package rather than a single program.

       Based on the function of the package, software packages are divided into two categories: system software and application software. Computer literacy involves learning how to use both system software and one or more application programs. Computes- -need system softwareto function. System software integrates the computer's hardware components and provides tools for day-to-day maintenance tasks, such as displaying a list of the files contained on a disk. MS-DOS, UNIX, Microsoft Windows 95, and System 7 are well-known examples of system software. Applicationsoftware turns the computer into a tool for a specific task, such as writing. Not all application programs will prove useful to you. Some application programs are special-purpose programs,which perform a specific task for a single profession. For example, safety managers use a program that prints records of occupation-related injuries and illnesses in a format required by a Federal regulatory bureau. If you aren't a safety manager, you won't find this application program interesting or useful.

       Other application programs are called general-purpose programs. Millions of people use these programs for a variety of tasks. Commonly used general-purpose programs include the following:

• Word processing. More than 85 percent of the personal computers now in existence are equipped with a word processing program, which transforms the computer into a tool for creating, editing, proofing, printing, and storing text. Many of today's books originated in text typed into computers—including this one.

Look through the text and find the passage where it is told about the desktop publishing. Read this passage and translate in the written form.

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