The content of the material for auding is exactly determined for each form in the secondary school syllabus G.V.Rogova divides it into

3 parts:

• linguistic

• psychological, it includes the assimilation of all the habits and skills of listening -comprehension

• Methodological part. Teaching the pupils for the ways and techniques of auding. Besides, by the technology of hearing the rules, principles,

methods and means of teaching to aud are identified.

2. The content of the material influences comprehension. The following factors should be taken into consideration when selecting the material for auding:

• the topic of communication: whether it is within the ability of the pupils to understand, and what difficulties pupils will come across (proper names, geographical names terminology etc.)

• the type of communication: whether it is a description or a narration. Description as a type of communication is less emotional and

interesting that is why it is difficult for the teacher to arose pupils’ interest in auding such a text. Narration is more interesting for auding. Consequently, this type of communication should be used for listening comprehension

The context and pupils’ readiness (intellectual and situational)_ to understand it.

• The form of communication: whether the text is a dialogue or a monologue. Monologue speech is easier for the learners, therefore , it is preferable for developing pupils’ ability to aud.

3. Conditions of presenting the material are of great importance for

teaching auding, namely:

 

The speed of the speech the pupil is auding. The hearer cannot change the speed of the speaker. There are different points of view on the problem of the speed of speech in teaching auding a foreign language. N.V.Elukhina believes that in teaching auding the tempo should slower than the normal speed of authentic speech. However this slowness is not

gained at the expense of time required for producing words (that might result in violating the intonation patterns of an utterance), but of the time required for pauses which are so necessary for a pupil to grasp the information of each portion between the pauses.

The number of times of presenting the material for auding: whether the pupils should listen to the text once, twice, three times or more. Pupils should be taught to listen to the text once and this must become a habit. However they sometimes can grasp only 50% of the information and even less, so a second in case the pupils cannot grasp most of the information, practice proves that manifold repetitions when hearing do not help much.

 

The presence or absence of the speaker is another factor. The most favourable condition is when pupils can see the speaker as is the case when the teacher speakers to them in a foreign language. The most unfavourable condition for auding is listening and comprehending a dialogue, when pupils cannot see the speakers and do not take part in the conversation.

 

Visual “props” which may be of two kinds, objects and motions. Pupils find it difficult to aud without visual props. The eye should help the ear to grasp a text when dealing with beginners. The voice of the speaker also influences pupils’ comprehension. Pupils who get used to the teachers’ voice can easily understand him, but they cannot understand other people speaking the same language.

 

Consequently, in teaching listening comprehension the teacher should bear in mind all the difficulties pupils encounter when auding in a foreign language.

4.The ways (techniques) of Teaching Listening Comprehension. Teaching Listening Comprehension process consist of two stages:

• The first stage consist of forming such skills in pupils as assimilation of phonemes, words, syntagmas, sentences necessary for listening comprehension, to differentiate and understand them.

• The second stage consist of forming and developing such habits and skills as understanding unfamiliar dialogic speech, micromonologue

texts and analysing them by hearing. The content of the text undergoing for listening mustn’t be familiar. They mustn’t see the graphical expression of the text.

This stage should be fulfilled in the following chronical sequences:

• the preparation for listening comprehension :The teacher selectsthe texts or complies them according to the age, knowledge level, language material assimilated by the pupils. Unfamiliar vocabulary, grammar structures names of cities, geographical names and other difficulties the correct pronunciation and the meaning of some words must be explained to the pupils by the teacher before. Even about

three words (place names, city names and etc.) can be translated and written on the blackboard.

 

• the process of having listening comprehension.Listeningcomprehension activity may be carried out in the following methodological consequence:

A) writing the translation of place and geographical names, surnames and etc. On the blackboard from the text or sounding speech.

B) Listening to a reading of a teacher, from the mouth of a native-

speaker, recording and so on. Pupils should listen to the speech only once in a normal tempo. The following tasks may be put forward before listening:

a) listen and grasp the meaning; b) listen and answer the questions; c) listen and grasp the meaning, then retell it in English or in Karakalpak; d) give suitable title to the text; e) make a plan of retelling and so on. Such tasks may be recommended in the 5-7 forms before listening

and in the 8-11 forms after the listening.

C) Doing exercises stimulating (facilitating) the comprehension of the unfamiliar content of the text. The following questions may be useful: Where was it? Who was he or she? What was he or she? When was it? How did finish? Did you agree? What was happened?

 

D) If it must necessary for deeper understanding the text (speech) must be put for listening for the second time.(Syllabus requirement is only one time)

E) Testing (control) understanding of the text (speech) listened.

F) The analysing of the content. Individual view point of each pupil; What the author’s senses are.

The following questions may be asked:

What do you think about the content? What does the author want to say by it? Will you decide to do so? Is the author right?

Such discussion is mainly done with pupils of the 8-11 forms.

To fulfil the task the teacher must train his pupils in listening comprehension beginning with the first lesson and throughout the whole period of instruction. These are the techniques the teacher uses for the purpose:

 

1. The teacher uses the foreign language:

 

• when giving the class instructions

 

• when presenting new language material (words, sentence patterns)

 

• when checking pupils’ comprehension

 

• when consolidating the material presented

 

• when checking pupils’ assimilation of the language material covered. These are the cases when the target language is used as a means of communication and a means of teaching. There is a great deal of auding

in all the points of the lesson. This raises the problem of the teacher’ speech during the lesson. Conducting a lesson in a foreign language gives the teacher an opportunity to develop pupils’ abilities in hearing, to train them in listening to him attentively during the lesson, to demonstrate the language as a means of communication.

 

Exercises for developing listening comprehension may fall under two types: 1)drill exercises, 2) speech exercises. We can group drillexercises into exercises designed for overcoming linguistic difficulties, and exercises which can eliminate psychological difficulties.

Speech exercises are designed for developing pupils’ skills in auding.

Several groups of exercises may be suggested:

 

• exercises which teach pupils to understand texts different in content, form, and type.

 

• Exercises which develop pupils’ skills to understand a text under different conditions. Sound producing aids should be extensively used for developing pupils’ auding, as pupils are supposed to understand not only their teacher’s speech, but other people speaking the target language, including native-speakers. Besides, sound producing aids allow the teacher to supply pupils with recorded speech different in speed and voice.

(see G.V.Rogova pp.180-183). Pupils’ skills in auding are gradually developed. They pass through the following 11 stages (for this see G.V.Rogova p.184)

Lecture 13

Theme:Teaching Reading in Secondary Schools

Problems for Discussion

1. Reading as an aim and a means of teaching and learning a foreign language

2. The content of teaching reading

3. Some difficulties pupils have in learning to read in the English language (Linguistic and Extralinguistic)

4. How to Teach Reading

5. Mistakes and How to correct them

1. In recent years, language teaching methodologists have gained a greater appreciation of the nature of the reading skill. They have come to understand that in fact it is not a single monolithic skill. Rather it is a behaviour which is made up of a large number of component skills sometimes referred to as microskills. These range from such foundational skills ass the ability to recognise the letters of the alphabet and to match spoken words and sentences with their written representation, to quite sophisticated skills such as skimming a piece of writing to gain a general idea of its content, or evaluating a text for its general tone or bias.

Methodologists have also come to believe that the types of reading done in the language classroom should reflect the many uses to which reading is put in real life. You use reading not only for study purposes but also for daily living. You read not just novels, essays, and poetry, but also newspapers, instruction manuals and the labels on the products you buy in the supermarket. Thinking of this variety of reading tasks, you can see that different tasks require different approaches. For maximum efficiency, students must be taught to vary their approach to suit the purpose of their reading.

Reading is one of the main skills that a pupil must acquire in the process of mastering a foreign language in school. The syllabus for foreign language lists reading as one of the leading language activities to be developed. It runs: By the end of the course pupils must be able to read easy texts of social-political contents, popular-science and fiction. In learning to read they should acquire skills in skimming and searching reading.

Therefore reading is in one of the practical aims of teaching a foreign language in schools. Reading is of great educational importance, as reading is a means of communication, people get information they need from books, journals, magazines, newspapers, etc. Through reading in a foreign language the pupil enriches his knowledge of the world

around him. He gets acquainted with the countries where the target language is spoken.

Reading develops pupils’ intelligence. It helps to develop their memory, will, imagination. Reading ability is , therefore, not only of great practical, but educational, and social importance, too.

Reading is not only an aim in itself, it is also a means of learning a foreign language. When reading a text the pupil reviews sounds and letters, vocabulary and grammar, memorises the spelling of words, the meaning of words and word combinations. The more the pupil reads the better his retention of the linguistic material is. Reading helps them to acquire speaking and writing skills as well.

Reading is, therefore both an end to be attained and a means to achieve that end.

2. The Content of Teaching Reading

Reading is a complex process of language activity. As it is closely connected with the comprehension of what is read, reading is a complicated intellectual work. It requires the ability on the part of the reader to carry out a number of mental operations: analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, comparison.

Reading as a process of connected with the work of visual, kinaesthetic, aural analysers and thinking. The visual analyser if at work when the reader sees a text. While seeing the text he “ sounds” it silently, therefore the kinaesthetic analyser is involved. When he sounds the test he hears what he pronounces in his inner speech so it shows that the aural analyser is not passive, it also works and, finally, due to the work of all the analysers the reader can understand thoughts. The speech of reading depends on the reader’s ability to establish a direct connection between what he sees and what it means. To make this easier to understand it may be represented as follows:

visual analyser

thought

Kinaesthetic analyser

aural analyser

There are two ways of reading: aloud or orally, and silently. In teaching a foreign language in school both ways should be developed.

The eyes of a very good reader move quickly, taking long “jumps” and making very short “halts”. We can call this ideal reading “reading perse”. Reading per se is the end to be attained. It is possible provided:

(1) the reader can associate the graphic system of the language with the phonic system of the language;

(2) the reader can find the logical subject and the logical predicate of the sentence;

(3) the reader can get information from the text (as a whole).

These are the three constituent parts of reading as a process.

As a means of teaching reading a system of exercises is widely used in schools, which includes:

1) graphic-phonemic exercises which help pupils to assimilate graphemic-phonemic correspondence in the English language;

2) structural-information exercises which help pupils to carry out lexical and grammar analysis to find the logical subject and predicate in the sentence following the structural signals;

3) semantic-communicative exercises which help pupils to get information from the text.

The actions which pupils perform while doing these exercises constitute the content of teaching and learning reading in a foreign language.

3. Reading in English language is one of the most difficult things becausethere are 26 letters and 146 graphemes which represent 46 phonemes. Indeed the English alphabet presents many difficulties to Karakalpak-speaking pupils because the Karakalpak alphabet differs greatly from that of the English language. A comparison of some letters show that they are the most difficult letters for the pupil to retain. (H-N; G-C; C-K; R-J). It is not sufficient to know English letters. It is necessary that pupils should know graphemes or consonant combination is read in different positions in the words (window, down). The teacher cannot teach pupils all the existing rules and exceptions for reading English words. When learning English pupils are expected to assimilate the following rules of reading: how to read stressed vowels in open and closed syllables and before “r”; how to read -ay-, -oo-, -ou-, -ow-; the consonants -c, -s, -k, -g; -ch, -sh, - th, -ng, -ck and -tion, -ssion, -ous. The pupils should learn the reading of some monosyllabic words which are homophones. For example, son - sun; tail - tale; too- two; write - right; eye - I, etc.

The most difficult thing in learning to read is to get information from a sentence or a paragraph on the basis of the knowledge of structural signals and not only the meaning of words. Pupils often ignore grammar and try to understand what they read relying on their knowledge of autonomous words. And, of course, they often fail, e.g. the sentence Hewas asked to help the old woman is understood as Он просил помочьстарушке, in which the word he becomes the subject and is not the object

of the action. Pupils sometimes find it difficult to pick out topical sentences in the text which express the main ideas.

To make the process of reading easier new words, phrases and sentences patterns should be learnt orally before pupils are asked to read them. So when pupils start reading they know how to pronounce the words, the phrases and the sentences, and are familiar with their meaning.

Consequently, in order to find the most effective ways of teaching the teacher should know the difficulties pupils may have.

4. The teacher can use the whole system of exercises foe developing pupils’’ ability to read which may be done in two forms - loud and silent.

Reading aloud.

In teaching reading aloud the following methods are observed: thephonic, the word, and the sentence ways. When the phonic way is used, the child learns the sounds and associates them with graphic symbols - letters. In the word way a complete word is first presented to the child. When several words have been learnt they are used in simple sentences. The sentence way deals with the sentences as units of approach in teaching reading. The teacher can develop pupils’ ability to read sentences with correct intonation. Later the sentence is split up into words. The combination of the three methods can ensure good reading.

Reading in chorus, reading in groups in imitation of the teacher which is practised in schools forms rather kinaesthetic images than graphic ones. The result is that pupils can sound the text but they cannot read. The teacher should observe the rule “Never read words, phrases,sentences by yourself. Give your pupils a chance to read them.”

Teaching begins with presenting a letter to pupils or a combination of letters, a word as a grapheme. The use of flash cards and the blackboard is indispensable. Flash cards. When the teacher uses them allow him:

a) to present a new letter (letters); b) to make pupils compose a word;

c) to check pupils’ knowledge of letters or graphemes;

d) to make pupils recollect the words beginning with the letter shown (p - pen, pupil, etc.);

e) to make pupils show the letter (letters), which stand for the sound [ ou ], [ a: ], [ o ], etc.

In teaching to read transcription is also utilised. It helps the reader to read a word in the cases where the same grapheme stands for different sounds: build, suit, or words which are not read according to the rule: aunt, colonel.

At an early stage of teaching reading the teacher should read a sentence or a passage to the class himself. When he is sure the pupils understand the passage he can set individuals and the class to repeat the

sentences after him, reading again himself if the pupils’ reading is poor. The pupils look into the textbook. [ T-Class-T-P1-T-P2 -T-Pn-T-C ] This kind of elementary reading practice should be carried on for a limited number of lessons only. When a class has advanced far enough to be ready for more independent reading, reading in chorus might be decreased, but not eliminated: T-C-P1P2Pn.

Reading aloud as a method of teaching and learning the language should take place in all the forms. This is done with the aim of improving pupils’ reading skills. In reading aloud, therefore, the teacher uses:

a) diagnostic reading (pupils read and he can see their weak points in reading);

b) instructive reading (pupils follow the pattern read by the teacher or the speaker);

c) control reading or test reading (pupils read the text trying to keep as close to the pattern as possible).

5. Mistakes and How to Correct them.

In teaching pupils to read the teacher must do his best to prevent mistakes. The following techniques may be suggested:

1. The teacher writes a word (e.g. black) on the blackboard. He underlines ck in it and asks the pupil to say what sound these two letters convey. If the pupil cannot answer the question, the teacher asks some of his classmates. They help the pupil to correct his mistake and he reads the word

2. One of the pupils asks: What is the English for «3ара- черный»? If the pupil repeats the mistake, the “corrector” pronounces the word properly and explains the rule the pupil has forgotten. The pupil now reads the word correctly.

3. The teacher or one of the pupils says: Find the word “3àðà” and read it. The pupil finds the word and reads it either without any mistake if his first mistake was due to his carelessness, or he repeats the mistake. The teacher then tells him to recollect the rule and the word correctly.

4. The teacher corrects the mistake himself. The pupil reads the word correctly. The teacher asks the pupil to explain to the class how to read “ck”.

5. The teacher tells the pupil (to write the word “black” and underline “ck”. Then he says how the word is read.

Another question arises: whether we should correct a mistake in the process of reading a passage or after finishing it. Both ways are possible.

Silent Reading.

In learning to read pupils widen their eyespan. The eye can move faster than the reader is able to pronounce what he sees. Thus reading aloud becomes an obstacle for perception. Special exercises may be

suggested to develop pupils’ skills in silent reading. For instance, “Lookand say”, “Read and Look up”. (M.West).

Teaching silent reading is closely connected with two problems:

(1) instructing pupils in finding in sentences what is new in the information following some structural signals, the latter is possible provided pupils have a certain knowledge of grammar and vocabulary and they can perform lexical and grammar analysis;

(2) developing pupils’ ability in guessing. Pupils should be taught how to find the logical predicate in a sentence. The teacher may ask his pupils to read a text silently and find the words conveying the new information in the text according to their position.

To read a text the pupil must possess the ability to grasp the contents of the text. The pupil is to be taught to compare, to contrast, to guess, and to foresee events.

One of the most frequently used techniques by which children attack new words is through the use of picture clues. The use of context clues is another word -getting technique.

In teaching pupils to read much attention should be given to the development of their ability to guess. One of the best ways to develop this skill is to give the pupil the text for acquaintance either during the lesson or as his homework. To develop pupils’ reading skill, i.e. to teach them to get information from the text it is necessary that text should be taken as a whole (the teacher does not break it into pieces). / For detail, see G.V.Rogova, p. 210-215/

Lecture 14

Theme:Teaching Writing in a Secondary School

Problems for Discussion

1. Roles of writing in the Learning and Use of Language. Writing as a skill.

2. Difficulties pupils have in Learning to Write English

3. Stages in the Development of Writing Proficiency

4. How to Teach Writing

5. Examples of Exercises to Develop the Writing skills

6. Summary

1. The aims of instruction in a foreign language includes, besides speaking and reading it, also writing it. Every school graduate must be capable of writing a letter in the foreign language he has studied, to keep up a correspondence in it with friends living abroad. Writing in the foreign language is also a very important means of instruction. As a means of instruction writing serves to consolidate both acquired linguistic knowledge and habits of using the language. Writing helps pupils to assimilate letters and sounds of the English language, its vocabulary and grammar, and to develop habits and skills in pronunciation, speaking , and reading. So writing is very important skill. The practical value of writing is great because it can fix patterns of all kinds (graphemes, words, phrases and sentences) in pupils’ memory, thus producing a powerful effect on their mind.

Writing includes penmanship, spelling, and composition. The latter is the aim of learning to write. Proficiency in expressing one’s thoughts in written form promotes proficiency in the use of the spoken language. Writing is also a highly effective means of testing the pupils’ knowledge and mastery of the foreign language. Setting test papers enables the teacher to appraise the attainments of the whole class and of each pupils in the acquisition of knowledge, in habit formation and in the development of specific skills. In the English language classroom, writing activities serve two different purposes. On the one hand, they help your classroom pupils to learn the kinds of personal, academic or professional writing which they will use in their daily lives. On the other hand, writing in English has a more purely pedagogical role. It reinforces the learning which goes on through the medium of the listening, speaking and reading skills. Since writing is a complicated skill it should be developed through the formation of habits such as:

(1) the habit of writing letters of the English alphabet;

(2) the habit of converting speech sounds into their symbols-letters and letter combinations;

(3) the habit of correct spelling of words, phrases and sentences;

(4) the habit writing various exercises which lead pupils to expressing their thoughts in connection with the task set.

In forming writing habits the following factors are of great importance:

1. Auditory perception of a sound, a word, a phrase, or a sentence, i.e., proper heaving of a sound a word, a phrase or a sentence.

2. Articulation of a sound and pronunciation of a word, a phrase, and a sentence by the pupil who writes.

3. Visual perception of letters or letter combinations which stand for sounds.

4. The movements of the muscles of the hand in writing.

The ear, the eye, the muscles and nerves of the throat and tongue, the movements of the muscles of the hand participate in writing. And at last, but not the least, factor which determines progress in formation and development of lasting writing habits is pupils’ comprehension of some rules which govern writing in the English language.

Our methodology believes that a conscious to teaching and learning a foreign language can ensure pupils’ progress in writing.

2. Since pupils should be taught penmanship, spelling, and composition it is necessary to know the difficulties Karakalpak pupils find in learning to write English. The writing of the English letters does not present much trouble because there a lot of similar letters in both languages. Only a few letters, such as s, r, t, b, h, l, f, j, I, G, A, N, etc., may be strange to Karakalpak pupils.

Pupil find it difficult to make each stroke continuous when the body of the letter occupies one space, the stem one more space above, the tail one more space below.

The most difficult thing for Karakalpak pupils in learning to write is English spelling. The spelling system of a language may be based upon the following principles:

1. Historical or conservative principle when speaking reflects the pronunciation of earlier periods in the history of the language. E.g.: English: busy, brought, daughter.

2. Morphological principle. In writing a word the morphemic composition of the word is taken into account. E.g.; in Russian: рыба, рыбка; the root morpheme is рыб, in English: answered, asked; the affixal morpheme is -ed.

3. Phonetic principle. Spelling reflects the pronunciation. E.g. in Russian:

бесконечный - безграничный; in English: leg, pot.

One or another of these principles may prevail in any given language. In French and English the historical or conservative principle dominates. The modern English spelling originated as early as the 15th century and has not been changed since then. The pronunciation has greatly during that time. Significant difference in pronunciation and spelling is the result. The same letters in different words are read differently. E.g. fat, fate, far, fare.

Different letters or letter combinations in different words are read in the same way: I - eye; rode - road; write - right; tale - tail. Many letters are pronounced in some words and are mute in other words; build [bild], laugh [la:f], brought [br :t].

The discrepancy that exists in the English language between pronunciation and spelling may be explained by the fact that there are more sounds in the language that there are letters to stand for these sounds. 20 vowels - 6 letters to convey them. In teaching English spelling special attention should be given, in the words which present much trouble in this respect. The spelling of the words, for example, busy, daughter, beautiful, through and very many others, must be assimilated through manifold repetition in their writing and spelling.

In conclusion it should be said that it is impossible to master accurate spelling without understanding some laws governing it. Pupils should know:

(1) how to add: -s to words ending in y: day-days; city-cities, study-studies; -ed to verbs: play-played; carry-carried; -ing to verbs: write-writing; play-playing; -er, -est to adjectives in the comparative and the superlative degrees: clean-cleaner-cleanest; large-larger-largest;

(2) when the consonant should be doubled: sit-sitting; thin-thinner; swim-swimming;

(3) the main word-building suffixes; -ful: use-useful; -less: use-useless; and others.

Writing a composition or a letter which is a kind of a composition where the pupil has to write down his own thoughts, in another problem to be solved. The pupil comes across a lot of difficulties in finding the right words, grammar forms and structures among the limited material stored up in his memory. The pupil often does not know what to write, he wants good and plentiful ideas which will be within his vocabulary and grammar.

3. In the teaching of writing, just as in the teaching of reading, it is helpful to have a long-range overview of how proficiency develops. You will notice that the links between reading and writing become closer as

students progress through the three main phases of the sequence.

1. Early stages of writing.

2. Proficiency level. Low beginners.

3. Skills and features of English to learn: use printed/cursive forms of roman alphabet. Learn general spelling and punctuation rules. Use

simple word, phrase, and sentence forms.

Expanded writing skills.Proficiency level. High beginners andintermediate students. Skills and features of English to learn. Use commonly occurring word, phrase, and sentence patterns. Write paragraphs with topic sentences and supporting details . Use link words to signal organisation of paragraphs. Practice techniques for pre-writing, revising, editing.

Academic writing skills. Proficiency level. High intermediate and advanced students. Skills and features of English to learn.

Use discourse patterns expected in academic writing. Develop a thesis with appropriate supporting details. Become more independent in the writing process.

General Lesson Plan for Composing Assignments. It is difficult to give a lesson plan which will cover all types of writing tasks. When your pupils are composing you should always have a pre-writing phase and you should always allow plenty of time for revising. In fact, it is so difficult to separate writing and revising that the most appropriate lesson format consists of just two main phases:

1. Pre-writing

a. Brainstorming in various forms, oral and written

b. Analysis of models

c. Reading

d. Notetaking

2. Writing and Revising

a. Time for multiple drafts

b. Feedback from teacher and other

Basic Writing Skills and Reinforcement of Speaking and Listening.

Your pupils may need writing instructions at the most basic level - learning to form the letters and other symbols of the English writing system. Pupils needing such instruction range from those who have neither reading nor writing skills in any language to those who are fully literate but who happen not to have learned a language which uses the Roman alphabet.

Here are some general points to consider when teaching writing at this very basic level :

Teaching the printed forms of letters, both capitals and lower case, has the advantage that there will be a closer match between the shapes which students write and the shapes which they must read. However, older learners may feel that printed letters are for children and insist on learning the cursive forms which they associate with adult handwriting. Choose the forms which work best for your students.

- When you began to learn to write in English, you may have learned the letters in alphabetical order. A more efficient to their shapes. For example, a number of lower case letters in their hand printed form are ‘ball and stick’ figures: a, b, d, p, q.

- At the same time that pupils are developing a legible handwriting, they can also learn spelling rules of wide applicability, as well as the use of common punctuation marks (especially the period, question mark, comma, and apostrophe).

Keep in mind that your students should be able to understand everything that they are asked to write. Thus it makes sense to present new content first via the listening and speaking skills, and to use reading and writing to reinforce what has been mastered in the aural/oral activities.

4. Teaching writing should be based on such methodological principles as a conscious approach to forming and developing this skill, visualisation and activity of pupils. Pupils learn to write letters, words, and sentences in the target language more successfully if they understand what they write, have good patterns to follow Dan make several attempts in writing a letter (a word, a sentence) until they are satisfied that the work is well done.

Training in penmanship should proceed by steps.

1. The teacher shows the learners a letter or both a capital and a small letter, for instance, Bb. Special cards may be used for the purpose. On one side of the card the letters are written. On the other side there is a word in which the letters are written. On the other side there is a words in which this letter occurs. E.g. Bb bed

2. The teacher shows his pupils how to write the letter. He can use the blackboard. E.g. V and W are made with one continuous zigzag movement. Q is made without lifting the pen except for the tail. L is also made without lifting the pen.

Whenever the teacher writes on the blackboard he gives some explanations as to know the letter is made, and then how the word is written. His pupils follow the movements of his hand trying to initiate them; they make similar movements with their pens in the air, looking at the blackboard.

3. The teacher asks pupils to write first the letter, then the word in their exercise-book.

When pupils are writing he walks round looking at the work they are doing and giving help to the pupils who need it. Since habits are formed and developed through performing actions pupils are told to practise in writing the letter and the word (words) at home.

The teacher’s handwriting and his skill in using the blackboard is of great importance. Children learn by imitating. They usually write in the way the teacher does, so he must be careful in the arrangement of the material on the blackboard because pupils will copy both what is written and how it is written.

Consequently, training in penmanship implies: visual perception; observations accompanied by some explanations on the part of the teacher; practice under the teacher’s supervision in class, and independently at home.

In spelling instruction the teacher should take into consideration the difficulties of English Spelling and instruct pupils how to overcome these difficulties. The following exercises may be suggested for the purpose:

1. Copying. The aim of this exercise is to allow the pupils to practisewhat has been taught in Listening and Speaking. Writing does this because the movements of the muscles of the hand are now called in to help the ear, the eye and the muscles and nerves of the throat and tongue.

The “look” and the “feel” of the word are used to help the memory (F.French).

For better assimilation of the spelling of words, it is recommended that various associations should be established, such as:

a) associations by similarity in Spelling:

within the Eng. language {room, spoon, moon; thought, bought, brought; night, right, light}

between Eng. & Rus words - биография - коммунизм - энтузиазм

Much care should be given to the words whose spelling does not follow the rules for example, daughter, busy, sure, usual, colonel, clerk, soldier, etc. Pupils master the spelling of such words by means of repetitions in writing them.

Copying may be carried out both in class and at home. In copying at home the following tasks may be suggested:

a) underline a given letter or letter combination for a certain sound;

b) underline a certain grammar item; c) underline certain words depicting , for example, the names of school things.

2. Dictation.This kind of writing exercise is much more difficult thencopying. Dictation in a valuable exercise because it trains the ear and the hand as well as the eye; it fixes in the pupil’s mind the division of each

sentence patterns, because the teacher dictates division by division. E.g.:

Tom and I/go to school/ together.

Dictations can vary in forms and in the way they are conducted:

(a) visual dictation as type of written work in intermediate between copying

and dictation. The teacher writes a word, or a word combination, or a sentence on the blackboard. the pupils are told to read it and memorise its spelling. then it is rubbed out and the pupils write is from memory.

(b) Dictation drill aims at consolidating linguistic material and preparing pupils for spelling tests.

(c) self-dictation. Pupils are given a text (a rhyme) to learn by heart. After they have learned the text at home the teacher asks to recite it. Then

they are told to write it in their exercise-books.

3. Writing sentences on a given pattern. The following exercises maybe suggested:

(a) substitution. Mick has a sister. The pupils should use other words instead of a sister. (b) Completion. E.g. He came home late because..

(c) Extension. Ann brought some flowers (adjective before flowers)

4. Writing answers to given questions.The question helps the pupilboth with the words and which the pattern required for the answer. the object of every kind of written exercise mentioned above is to develop pupil’s spelling in the target language and to fix the linguistic material favourable conditions for developing their skills in writing compositions. By composition in this case we mean pupil’s expression of their own thoughts in a foreign language in connection with a suggested situation or a topic within the linguistic material previously assimilated in speech and reading.

In teaching compositions the following exercises may be suggested:

1. A written reproduction of a story either heard or read.

2. A description of a picture, an object or a situation.

3. A descriptive paragraph about a text, or a number of texts on a certain subject. Pupils may be given concrete assignments.

4. An annotation on the text read.

5. A composition on a suggested topic.

6. Letter writing. Pupils are usually given a pattern letter in English, which shows the way the English start their letters and end them.

Various kinds of tests may be recommended in teaching writing to measure pupils’ achievements in penmanship, spelling and composition (see G.V. Rogova, p. 231-32)

5. Exercises for beginning writers should build on material which is already familiar to the students. The pre-writing phase should contain a lot of oral work and the actual writing done by the students should be

limited and controlled in various ways. Here are some suggestions for beginning writing activities.

- Have pupils dictate the first part of a story. After three or four sentences have been dictated, give the students the story to complete independently in writing.

- Give students copies of cartoons from which the characters’ dialogue has been omitted. Have them compose orally, experimenting with various things the characters might say, and then write their ideas on the cartoons.

- Have students invent and act out brief social exchanges: asking directions, making a purchase in a store, greeting someone in the street, ordering food at a snack bar. Then have them write these dialogue form.

Summary

Writing activities serve two purposes in the English language classroom: 1) Learning the types of personal, academic, and professional writing which students need in their daily lives.

2) Reinforcing the learning which goes on through the medium of the other language skills. In planning and conducting writing activities with your students:

- be sure to include activities that allow your students to communicate ideas that are meaningful to them;

- include exercises which help your students understand and master the features of written discourse: overall patterns of organisation, ways of expressing logical relationships, and so on.

Use pre-writing activities to generate ideas and provide the language resources needed for the writing tasks.

Lecture 15

Theme:Teaching Speaking in English

Problems for Discussion

1. General Remarks

2. The Most Difficulties of Teaching Speaking a Foreign Language

3. The Content of Teaching Speaking in English

4. Techniques for Teaching Speaking

1. The knowledge of each of the aspect of the language is of great importance to learners. However, when we say a person knows the language we first of all mean he understands the language spoken and can speak it himself.

Speaking in English is also one of the language skills. By speaking information is given. Language came into life as a means of communication. It exists and is alive only through speech. When we speak about teaching a foreign language, we first of all have in mind teaching it as a means of communication. Speech is a bilateral process. It includes hearing, on the one hand, and speaking, on the other. When we say “hearing” we mean auditing or listening and comprehension. Speaking exists in two forms: dialogue and monologue. Speaking is closely interacted with other language skills. If the pupil acquires listening and understanding (Comprehension) skills well his speaking abilities also develops in a quick tempo.

Reading is also interrelated with speaking. The pupil gives information, can speak according to the material he reads. reading is the material base for speaking. The language learner (pupil) can express (write) the information in written form through reading, speaking, and listening.

The secondary school syllabus requirement is to carry on a conversation and to speak a foreign language within the topics and linguistic material. Thus, speaking is the practical aim in teaching oral language. Finally, it is use for developing pronunciation habits and skills and, therefore, for reading and writing since they are closely connected with pupils’ ability to pronounce correctly what they read and write. Thus speaking is the most important part of the work during the lesson.

Consequently oral language is:

• an aim when pupils make use of the target language as a means of communication, i.e. the target language is used for:

(1) Teacher-pupils communication in the classroom;

(2)pupils’ communication when talking on a topic under Teacher’s supervision;

(3)pupils’ communication when working at a text-discussing the problems touched in it;

(4)pupils’ communication during out-of-class activities in the target language;

• a means of teaching and learning a foreign language when it is used:

(1) within the methods of acquisition of new information about a linguistic or language phenomenon and drill and transformation to form pronunciation, lexical, grammar, etc. habits in pupils;

(2) for checking pupils’ comprehension.

2. Speaking a foreign language is the most difficult part in language learning because pupils need ample practice in speaking to be able to say a few words of their own in connection with a situation. This work is time-consuming and pupils rarely feel any real necessity to make themselves understood during the whole period of learning a new language in school. The stimuli the teacher can use are often feeble and artificial. The pupil respects the sentence he hears, he completes sentences that are in the book he constructs sentences on the patterns of a given one. These mechanical drill exercises are, of course, necessary; however, when they go on year after year without any other real language practise they are deadening. There must be occasions when the pupils feel the necessity to inform someone of something, to explain something and to prove something to someone. This is a psychological factor which must be taken into account when teaching pupils to speak a foreign language.

Difficulties of Teaching Speaking a foreign language may be divided into 2 groups:

A) Extralinguistic Difficulties

B) Linguistic Difficulties

1. Speech (speaking) may be addressed to someone, or to be devoted to some events, things, some life situations.

2) Creating speech situations, speaking a union (a Group of people) when speaking.

3) The existence of various aids (visual and etc.), means and so on.

4) The necessity of speaking

5) The peculiarities of the conditions where speaking is carried out (the division of the class (form) into 2 parts or not classroom placement and etc.

6) Using various kinds thetic movements, mime and so on while speaking. Besides, there are some psychological difficulties of speaking. The pupil needs words, phrases, sentence patterns, and grammatical forms and structures stored up in his memory ready to be used for expressing any thought he wants to. In teaching speaking, therefore, the teacher should stimulate his pupils’ speech by supplying them with the subject and by teaching them the words and grammar they need to speak about the suggested topic or situation. The teacher should lead his pupils to unprepared speaking through prepared speaking.

B. Linguistic difficulties of Speaking

1. the right selection of lexical and grammatical items (material), speech patterns necessary for speaking.

2. the difficulties in the usage , meaning and content of the lexical and grammatical (item) necessary for speaking.

3. the difficulties in the correct pronunciation, tone (tune) and rhythm affecting the speaking process.

4. the difficulties in the usage of speech patterns, phrases Besides speaking has the following difficulties too:

a) speaking not in a literary standard language but in a colloquial style

b) sentences, phrases are made very short: Have you? and you? How many books have you? - One. and the like.

c) shortened forms are widely used: don’t, won’t, I’ve, shan’t and so on. d) shortened words are widely used:

laboratory - lab; microphone-mike; mathematics-maths. e) making remarks: Well, Hello, why not, Hey, etc.

Speaking exists in two forms: dialogue and monologue. There are some peculiarities of the monologue and dialogue speaking. Speech may also be divides into: prepared (ready - made) and spontaneous (unprepared). It is considered prepared when the pupil has been given time enough to think over its content and form. He can speak on the subject following three plan made either independently at home or in class under the teacher’s supervision. His speech will be more or less correct and sufficient fluent since plenty of preliminary exercises had been done before. In schools, however, pupils often have to speak on a topic when they are not yet prepared for it. As a result only bright pupils can cope with the task. The teacher should encourage each pupil to speak on the subject in his own way and thus develop pupils initiative and thinking. The pupils’ speech is considered unprepared when, without any previous preparation, he can do the following:

- speak on a subject suggested by the teacher (E.g. winter holidays, or Football match).

- speak on the text read. For example, pupils have read two or three chapters of Robin Hood.

-speak on the text heard: - Discuss a problem or problems touched upon in the test read or heard.

- have an interview with “a foreigner”.

-Help “a foreigner’, for example, to find the way to the main street or square of the town; or instruct him as to places of interest in the town. This may be done directly or with the help of “an interpreter.”

There are, of course, other techniques foe stimulating pupils’ unprepared speech. The teacher chooses the techniques most suitable for his pupils since he knows their aptitudes, their progress in the language, the time he has at his disposal for developing speaking skills, the concrete material at which pupils are working.

It should be said that prepared and unprepared speech must be developed simultaneously from the very beginning. The relationship between prepared and unprepared speech should vary depending on the stage of learning the language. In the junior stage prepared speech takes the lead, while in the senior stage unprepared speech should prevail.

3. The content of teaching speaking in English comprises the following three aspects: Linguistic, Psychological and methodological.

Linguistic Aspect (chapter) consists of the language materials andspeech materials, sentence structures, speech patterns and so on. necessary for speaking. These materials must be selected on the base of certain topics. Besides, some extraslinguist elements such as mime, actions and some other means must be kept in mind.

Psychological Aspect of speaking includes speech skills (languageskills). That is reproduction, putting in the right place, transformation, extension, adding and mixing. Reproduction means reproducing (saying aloud, repetition) of what he (she) heard from the mouth of a teacher or recording.

Methodological Aspect includes the usage of methods, techniquesof teaching speaking.

`It is important that pupils should use the means of basement (onopa, таянч). That is the means (onopa) of listening, seeing, words and etc.

4. As it was mentioned above there are 2 forms of speaking; monologue and dialogue. Each form has its peculiarities, In teaching monologue we can easily distinguish three stages according to the levels which constitute the ability to speak:

(1) the statement level; (2) the utterance level; (3) the discourse level.

1. No speech is possible until pupils learn how to make up sentences in the foreign language and how to make statements. To develop pupils’ skills in making statements the following procedure may be suggested:

Pupils are given sentence patterns to assimilate in connection with situations.

For example: a) I can see a ....

b) I am fond of...

c) We are proud of...

Pupils are invited to perform various drill exercises within the sentence patterns given:

- substitution: L have a book (pen).

- extension: I have an interesting book. I have an interesting book at home.

- transformation: He has a book; He has no book.

- completion: If I have time I will....

Pupils make statements of their own in connection with the situations suggested by the teacher.

- Give it a name. Teacher: We write with it. Pupil: it is a pen (pencil).

- make statements on the picture

- say the opposite. - I live in Berdakh Street. I do not live in Berdakh Street.

2. Pupils are taught how to use different sentence patterns in an utterance about an object, a subject offered. First they are to follow a model, then they do it without any help.

Teacher: Say a few words about it. (He points to an object)

Pupil: This is a pencil. The pencil is green. It is on the table. I like the pencil.

Get information and sum up

What you have learnt from your classmate? Teacher: She cut her finger.

Pupil: Who cut her finger?

Class: Ann.

- When did she cut it? - Yesterday.- What did she cut it with? - With a knife.

- Why did she cut her finger? - Because the knife was sharp.

This exercise is useful both for developing dialogue and monologue speech. At this stage pupils learn to express their thoughts, their attitude to what they say using various sentence patterns. Thus they learn how to put several sentences together in one utterance about a subject, an object, etc.

3. After pupils have learned how to say a few sentences in connection with a situation they are prepared for speaking at discourse level. At this level pupils are asked to speak on a picture, a set of pictures, a film-strip, a film, comment on a text they have read or heard, make up a story of their own.

The three levels in developing pupils’ speaking should take place throughout the whole course of instruction, i.e., in junior, intermediate, and senior forms.

Rule for the teacher: In teaching monologue instruct pupils how tomake statements first, then how to combine various sentences in one utterance and, finally, how to speak on a suggested topic.

A dialogue consists of a series of lead-response units. the significant feature of a lead-response unit is that the response part may, and usually does, serve in its own turn as a fresh inducement leading to further verbal exchanges, i.e., lead-response- inducement-response.

In teaching dialogue we should use lead-response units as a teaching point and pattern-dialogues as they involve all features which characterise this form of speech. (see pp. 189-193, Rogova).

When a pattern dialogue is used as a unit of teaching there are three stages in learning a dialogue: (1) receptive; (2) reproductive; (3) constrictive (creative).

Rule for the teacher:In teaching dialogue use pattern dialogues;make sure that your pupils go through the three stages from receptive through reproductive to creative, supply them with the subject to talk about.

As to the relationship between monologues and dialogues, it should be vary from stage to stage in teaching speaking in schools. In the junior stage (4-6) dialogue speech, the one which allows the teacher to introduce new material and consolidate it in conversation, must prevail; in the intermediate stage (7-8-9) dialogue and monologue must be on an equal footing.

In the senior stage (10-11) monologic speech must prevail since pupils either take part in discussion and, therefore, express their thoughts in connection with a problem or retell text read or heard. To sum it up both forms of speech (monologue and dialogue) should be developed side by side with preference for the one which is more important for pupils’ progress in learning a foreigner language at a certain stage.

Prepared and unprepared speech.

Pupils’ speech in both forms may be of two kinds: prepared and unprepared. It is considered prepared when the pupil has been given time

enough to think over its content and form. The pupils’ speech is considered unprepared when, without any previous preparation, he can do the following: speak on a subject suggested by the teacher. (E.g.: Winter Holidays) . Speak on the text read; speak on the text heard. Have an interview with a foreigner and etc.

It should be said that prepared and unprepared speech must be developed simultaneously from the very beginning. In the junior stage prepared speech takes the lead, while in the senior stage unprepared speech should prevail.