Схема 1. Экспериментальная ситуация

ВКЛЮЧЕННОЕ ПОЛЕВОЕ НАБЛЮДЕНИЕ

В отличие от лабораторного эксперимента проведение полевого наблюдения часто не связаны с проверкой гипотезы. Исследователь стремится понять реальную социальную ситуацию и вовлеченных в нее людей. Поэтому он сам отправляется /647/ в тюрьмы, бары, закоулки, конторы и т.п. Другими словами, включенное полевое наблюдение проводится в обстановке, где обычно проявляется исследуемое поведение. Хотя на начальном этапе работы "в поле" об исследователе может сложиться предвзятое мнение, обычно он старается ослабить такое впечатление. Например, Уайт (1943), проводивший классическое исследование итальянских трущоб, пояснил, что сначала он старался наблюдать все вокруг - ничего нельзя было упустить, поскольку, как ему представлялось, он не определил самые важные задачи исследования. Однако по мере ознакомления исследователя с людьми и с ситуацией зарождаются некоторые гипотезы. Они могут быть проверены в процессе работы "в поле" или стать темой для дальнейшего исследования.

Одна из самых трудных задач включенного полевого исследования - наблюдение событий без воздействия на них. Само присутствие исследователя может изменить ситуацию. Например, ученый, живущий в городской трущобе, наверное, обладает более высоким уровнем образования, чем люди, которых он изучает. У них может возникнуть представление, что он принадлежит к более состоятельному классу, и это, возможно, вызовет почтение или враждебность с их стороны. Трудно избежать этой проблемы и потому, что полевые исследователи выступают то в роли участников событий, то наблюдателей. Умение сочетать эти роли имеет решающее значение. Роль участника позволяет понять опыт других людей и завоевать их доверие. Но необходима и роль наблюдателя, чтобы сохранить беспристрастность и объективность.

Обычно предполагается, что любые изменения, вызванные присутствием исследователя, со временем уменьшаются. Однако они не исчезают полностью. Например, даже год спустя один из участников исследования Уайта признал, что присутствие социолога мешало ему вести себя естественно. "Теперь, когда я что-то делаю, - рассказывал он, - я вынужден думать о том, что вас интересует в моем деле".

Подобно любой науке, социология стремится к обобщениям. Однако возможность обобщения результатов полевых исследований может быть ограничена не только из-за вероятности воздействия исследователя на поведение людей, но и тем, что обстановка, выбранная для исследования, не всегда типична для других условий и, следовательно, не может служить основой для обобщения. Решение этих проблем связано с трудностями. Спорные вопросы, возникающие в этих случаях, придают особую важность соответствующей подготовке перед началом полевого исследования. /648/

ЭТИЧЕСКИЕ ПРИНЦИПЫ ИССЛЕДОВАТЕЛЬСКОЙ РАБОТЫ

Сбор данных ставит важные этические вопросы, на которые нельзя дать простые ответы. Этические проблемы обычно концентрируются вокруг возможности своего рода обмана, вина за который возлагается или на социолога, или на характер исследования, или на то и другое одновременно.

В некоторых случаях люди не должны знать подлинные данные о личности исследователей, иначе они не представят желаемую информацию. В любой общности существуют группы людей, занимающиеся деятельностью, о которой они предпочитают умалчивать. Они опасаются, что разоблачение может навлечь судебное преследование (торговцы наркотиками), вызвать публичное осуждение (гомосексуалисты) или то и другое сразу. Исследователь, раскрывший свои замыслы, возможно, преодолеет скрытность по крайней мере некоторых из этих людей. Остальные же, даже отличающиеся от тех, кто боится разоблачения, скорее всего, составят необъективную выборку.

В ситуациях подобного рода социологи иногда сообщали о себе; ложные сведения; чтобы завоевать доверие, они выдавали себя за людей, в чем-то похожих на них. Например, в 15-й главе мы узнали, что группа исследователей выдавала себя за верующих, сторонников культа. Согласно их объяснению, если бы они назвали себя исследователями, их исключили бы из группы, и они подверглись бы нападкам со стороны верующих. В других случаях исследователи полностью раскрывают себя, но скрывают подлинные цели исследования. Однако часто исследователи вводят обследуемых в заблуждение, опасаясь, что в противном случае вызовут искажения в их ответах.

В принципе подобный обман или ложная информация о мотивах действий исследователя неэтичны. Когда подобный обман или надувательство становятся нормой в повседневной деятельности профессионалов, наверное, они заслуживают еще более суровой критики. Однако такой обман должен быть сопоставлен с важностью получения научно обоснованных результатов. В свою очередь, их важность должна сопоставляться с потенциальным психологическим или физическим ущербом, который может быть нанесен обследуемым. Если существует риск нанести им вред, даже потенциальная ценность исследовательских проектов не может служить оправданием обмана. /649/

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