METRIC SYSTEM AND ITS ORIGIN

МОСКОВСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ

УНИВЕРСИТЕТ ГЕОДЕЗИИ И КАРТОГРАФИИ

МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ УКАЗАНИЯ

«Английский язык»

для студентов I курса факультета

«Дистанционные формы обучения»

Вечернее отделение

Москва 2017

Методические рекомендации

       Одним из основных требований методических указаний является выполнение всех упражнений.

       Прежде чем приступить к чтению текстов, рекомендуется выполнить упражнения для первичного закрепления грамматики.

       Упражнения составлены в полном соответствии с лингвистическими и методическими принципами, положенными в основу пособия, его структурой и организацией учебного материала.

       Материал для упражнений отобран с таким расчетом, чтобы, с одной стороны, не создавать дополнительных лексических трудностей, а с другой – обеспечить закрепление того или иного грамматического материала.

       Количество упражнений по каждой теме определяется как объемом самой темы, так и степенью трудности ее усвоения студентами.

       После завершения работы над текстом предлагается приступить к лексико-грамматическим упражнениям в той последовательности, в какой они даны в пособии, так как они расположены в порядке постепенного нарастания трудностей.

       Выполнение всех лексико-грамматических упражнений обеспечит последовательное закрепление и прочное практическое усвоение материала, изложенного в пособии.

       Большое значение придается упражнениям, содержащим примеры для объяснения употребления того или иного грамматического явления, при использовании которых преподаватель может осуществить одновременно несколько методических задач.

Укажите признаки и определители существительных:

the figures, some subjects, many important properties, this drawing, those young specialists, his accurate measurement.

    Глаголы, данные в скобках, поставьте в соответствующем лице и числе в Present Indefinite. Предложения переведите:

1. This scientist (to be) a professor of mathematics.

2. He (to have) many students at his lecture.

3. I (to be) a student too; I (to be) a schoolboy only three month ago.

4. All the students (to be) present today.

5. Geometry (to be) an important subject for technical students.

6. The surface (to have) two dimensions: length and breadth.

7. The length of the line (to be) ½ (one half) of a meter.

8. There (to be) many things on the teacher’s table.

9. Yesterday we (to have) two lectures.

Переведите предложения, обращая внимания на различные способы перевода оборота there+be:

a) 1. There are many students at the lecture today.

2. There is a blackboard in front of the students’ desks.

3. There were cars in front of the house. There were several men there too.

б) 1. There are hundreds of different tables on the walls.
2. There are different types of rocket motors.
3. There are several kinds of surfaces.

 в) 1. In the corner of the room there stands a bookcase.
2. There hangs a clock over the bookcase.
3. In the middle of the classroom there stand some desks.

    Поставьте предложения в вопросительную и отрицательную формы:

1. Our lecturer always draws some figures on a drawing board.

2. These young men and women study at an English technical college.

3. The students go to the institute by tram.

4. The teacher does everything with great accuracy.

5. Anybody has weight and mass.

    Определите значения интернациональных слов. Не прибегая к помощи словаря, переведите интернациональные слова; обратите внимание на их полное совпадение с соответствующими русскими словами по значению:

    college ['kɔlıdʒ] n                        lecture ['lektʃə] n                    compass ['kʌmpəs] n                  mathematics [,mæɵı'mætıks] n             ellipse [ı'lıps] n                        symbol ['sımbl] n                        geometry [dʒı'ɔmıtrı] n         technical ['teknıkl] adj

    Переведите со словарем слова, частично совпадающие с соответствующими русскими словами по значению. Выберите нужное значение слова, исходя из контекста:

        assistant [ə'sıstnt] n                              line [laın] n               construction [kən'strʌkʃn] n         position [pə'zıʃn] n                               figure ['fıgə] n                         professor [prə'fesə] n                  instrument ['ınstrəmənt] n               student ['stju:dnt] n                                                                                      subject ['sʌbdʒıkt] n

    Words to be learnt:

        decimal - десятичный                 pound - фунт                              degree - градус                                 pressure - давление                    difference - разница, разность,              scale - шкала                                      различие                   unit - единица                             to divide - делить                                 to use - использовать                       measure - мера, измерять                    volume - объём                     mercury - ртуть                          weight - вес                                          numerous - многочисленный

G E O M E T R Y

    On the wall there hangs a blackboard and tables. There are some drawings on the blackboard. These are geometrical figures: a circle in the middle, a square on the left, a triangle on the right and an ellipse below the circle. Under the drawings there are numbers and symbols.

    Geometry treats of the properties, constructions and measurements of lines, surfaces and solids.

    A solid, or body, has three dimensions: length, breadth and thickness. A surface has only two dimensions: length and breadth. A line has only one dimension, length. A point has no dimension but simply a position in space.

    Higher mathematics is a very important subject for technical college students.

M E A S U R E M E N T S

    The lecture is about measurements. Mr. Hall illustrates his lectures with numerous examples, diagrams and experiments. He says: "In scientific work we usually measure in units of the metric system. The metric or decimal system is the international system of measures and weights which is based on the wave-length of orange-red light which is given off by the element Krypton 86, and is measured with great accuracy in scientific laboratories all over the world. The meter is divided into 100 centimeters and each centimeter into 10 millimeters.

    The corresponding units of mass, volume and pressure are the kilogram, the cubic meter and the Newton/m² respectively."

    Mr. Hall ends the lecture with the words: "The metric system of measures and weights is used in most countries of the world. But there is also another system of measures and weights, the Imperial system, which is based on the foot and the pound. Some countries still use this system."

    Here is an example of the difference between the two systems:

    Ответьте на вопросы:

1. What does Mr. Hall illustrate his lectures with?

2. What is the international system of measures and weights?

3. What is the unit of   a) volume; b) length; c) mass?

4. How do we normally measure    a) volume; b) pressure?

5. In what units do we usually measure distance?

    Образуйте существительные с помощью данных суффиксов. Переведите исходные и производные слова:

    -ist:physic(s), special, social
    -er: to read, to lectur(e),                       to report, to convert
    -or: to construct, to translat(e),            to generat(e)
    -ing: to draw, to read, to begin
    -ment:to measure
    -th:long, broad, strong
-ion: to construct, to illustrat(e),          to express
-action: to combin(e), to inform
-sion:to divi(de), to deci(de),      to conver(t)
-ssion:to transmi(t), to permi(t)

    Переведите следующие сочетания, учитывая многозначность выделенных слов:

              handn                                        numbern                          the hand of a man                          the number of the lesson                      the hand of a clock                          the number of students               the hand of a compass                the number of examples

              productn                                   unitn                                          the product of industry                     the unit of length                         the product of conversion          the unit of mass                       the product of multiplication              the unit of motor

    Переведите сочетания слов, обращая внимание на перевод существительных в функции определения:

    difference- atmospheric pressure difference
    length- the wave-length, the light wave-length
    phenomenon -nature phenomenon
    laboratory -physics laboratory, institute physics laboratory
    measurements- pressure measurements, gas pressure measurements

    Укажите, по каким признакам можно определить, является ли слово глаголом или существительным. Переведите следующие слова и сочетания слов:

1. he experiments, his experiments, they experiment, their experiment, these experiments, this experiment.

2. a measure, he measures, the measures, this measure, it measures, its measure, no measure, does not measure.

    Поставьте предложения в вопросительную и отрицательную формы:

1. The assistant measures everything with a great of accuracy.

2. They take readings every 30 seconds.

3. The professor's assistants always show us experiments in the laboratory.

4. The students measure pressure at the laboratory.

5. He used mercury thermometers.

6. They fixed this instrument during the experiments.

7. Next week he will explain the difference between the metric and imperial systems.

     Определите значение интернациональных слов. Не прибегая к помощи словаря, переведите интернациональные слова. Обратите внимание на их полное совпадение с соответствующими русскими словами по значению:

    academy [ə'kædəmı] n           problem ['prɔbləm] n                  colleague ['kɔli:g] n                real [rıəl] a                                  contact ['kɔntækt] n               talented ['tæləntıd] a                   photogrammetry [,foutou'græmıtrı] n  university [,ju:nı’və:sıtı] n                  physics ['fızıks] n                        function ['fʌŋkʃn] n

    Образуйте существительные с помощью данных суффиксов. Переведите исходные и производные слова:

    -ity:equal, activ(e), productiv(e), relative
    -ness:thick, great, rough
    -ance:import(ant), assist(ant), dist(ant)
    -ance: effici(ent), depend(ent), pres(ent), exist
    -ency:effici(ent), depend(ent)
    -age:us(e), pass, break

    В выделенных словах укажите суффиксы существительных и переведите данные сочетания:

        The usage of a word; the simplicity of the equation; the expressionof relativity; the roughnessof the surface; temperature readings; the solution of the problem; the efficiencyof the method; the equalityof positions.

    Переведите данные сочетания слов, обращая внимание на форму беспредложного определения:

a.the theory of the field                 the field theory

the forces of gravitation                       the gravitation forces

b.the knowledge of the people       the people's knowledge

the advice of the scientist                     the scientist's advice

c.the magnetism of the earth         the earth's magnetism

the energy of the sun                  the sun's energy

the economy of the country        the country's economy

    Определите значение интернациональных слов. Не прибегая к помощи словаря, переведите интернациональные слова. Обратите внимание на их полное совпадение с соответствующими русскими словами по значению:

        base [beıs] v                                          illustrate ['ıləstreıt] v                   centimeter ['sentı,mi:tə] n              kilometer [kı'lɔmıtə] n                 cubic ['kju:bık] a              laboratory [lə'bɔrətrı] n               element ['elımənt] n               meridian [mə'rıdıən] n                      experiment [ık'sperımənt] n     metric ['mətrık] a                   gram(me) [græm] n                               system ['sıstım] n                                                                           diagram ['daıəgræm] n

    Переведите со словарем слова, частично совпадающие с соответствующими русскими словами по значению. Выберите нужное значение слова, исходя из контекста.

        realize ['rıəlaız] v                         address [ə'dres] v                        foot [fut] n                                  mass [mæs] n

    Найдите в словаре значения следующих слов. Это - так называемые "ложные друзья переводчика", т.к. слова, сходные по звучанию, но совершенно не совпадающие по значению с соответствующими русскими словами.

        accuracy ['ækjurəsi] n                 accurate [‘ækjurıt] a

    Words to be learnt:

    universal - всеобщий                  to spread - распространять(ся) to date from - возникать       to adopt - принимать                 to define - определять           simplicity - простота                  to run - тянуться, ходить           as far as in - ещё в                               to multiply - умножать              up till - вплоть до                           to create - создавать                   to compare - сравнивать

METRIC SYSTEM AND ITS ORIGIN

    The idea of a universal system of measures and weights dates from long ago, but it was realized only two centuries ago. The metric, or decimal system was worked out by the French Academy of Sciences in 1791. How were the units for length and weight defined then?

    Two French scientists who were given the task to define these units took one fourth of the distance from the North Pole to the Equator on the geographical meridian which is running through Paris (the distance from Dunkirk in France to Barcelona in Spain) and divided it into ten million equal parts. One of these parts was called a meter or a “measure”. For shorter measurements the meter was divided by ten, for longer things the meter was multiplied by tens.

    It was easy to use the same meter for volume. The weight-of one cubic centimeter of water was called a gramme. Thus the metric system was created.

    Russian scientists played a great part in the spreading metric system in Russia as well as in other countries.

    As far as in 1867 D.I. Mendeleyev addressed Russian scientists to help to spread the decimal system. The project of the law about the use of the metric system in Russia was also worked out by D.I. Mendeleyev. That up till the end of the 19th century different units of measurement were used in various countries. In our country the metric system was adopted in 1918. Now it is adopted by most of the countries. None of the systems of the past can be compared in simplicity to that of our days.

         Ответьте на вопросы:

1. What system was worked out by the French Academy of Science?

2. How were the units for length and weight defined?

3. What task was given to French scientists?

4. How was the metric system created?

5. Who was the metric system in Russia worked out by?

6. When was the metric system adopted in various countries?

    Переведите следующие прилагательные и наречия, обращая внимание на различные способы образования степени сравнения:

much

                                                more                            (the) most

many

little                                         less                              (the) least

good

                                                better                           (the) best

well

bad

                                                worse                           (the) worst

badly

    Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на форму прилагательных:

1. This classroom is larger and lighter than other classrooms. It is the largest and the lightest room here.

2. The red line on this drawing is shorter than other lines. It is the shortest line.

3. Mathematics is more important for technical students than many other subjects. It is one of the most important subjects at any technical institute.

4. The results of his last experiment were worse than before. He got the worst results this time.

    Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на слова- заместители:

1. This solid is denser than that one.

2. This is a new measuring instrument, its accuracy is much higher than that of the old one.

3. The instruments at our laboratory are not so modern as those at yours.

4. Mercury revolves round the Sun at a higher speed than other planets. Its speed is much higher than theirs.

    Определите значения интернациональных слов:

    centre [ˈsentə] n                       planet [ˈplænɪt] n

    diameter [daɪˈæmɪtə] n           reaction [riˈækʃn] n

    equivalent [ɪˈkwɪvələnt] n, a   satellite [ˈsætəlaɪt] n

    method [ˈmeθəd] n                 second[ˈsekənd] n

    million [ˈmɪljən]                        universal [ˌjuːnɪˈvɜːsəl] a

    period [ˈpɪəriəd] n                           utilize [ˈjuːtɪlaɪz] v

    Переведите со словарём слова, частично совпадающие с соответствующими русскими словами по значению:

    effective [ɪˈfektɪv] a regular [ˈreɡjulə] a normal [ˈnɔːməl] a

    Образуйте прилагательные при помощи данных суффиксов. Переведите исходные и производные слова:

    -full: help, use, power

    -less:use, help, power, motion, weight

    -ic:period, metr(e), atmospher(e), bas(e)

    -al: physic(s), natur(e), experiment, mathematic(s)

    -able:valu(e), change, measur(e), compar(e)

    -ant:import, resist

    -ent:differ, insist

    -ive:effect, act

Образуйте при помощи суффикса -ly  наречия от данных прилагательных и сравните по словарю значения прилагательного и соответствующего наречия:

    simple, normal, usual, complete

    large, near, great, high, hard

    Переведите следующие сочетания слов, обращая внимание на существительные в функции определения:

    The surface temperature, the ocean surface, energy supply, a ball diameter, mercury pressure, gravitation force, the Moon’s surface, the Earth’s magnetism, solid properties, the mean sea level.

     Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на сравнительную степень прилагательных:

1. The nearer the Earth, the denser the atmosphere.

2. The more experiments scientists make, the greater is their knowledge of the structure of matter.

3. The bigger the mass, the bigger the weight of the body.

4. The nearer the centre of the Sun, the higher the temperature.

5. The more the scientist studied the problem, the better he understood its importance for man.

6. The stronger the magnet, the greater the distance through which it acts.

Переведите следующие сочетания слов, обращая особое внимание на значение наречий, относящихся к прилагательным:

a valuable theory                   - a highlyvaluable theory           an important discovery                      - a greatlyimportant discovery                     an effective device                           - a largelyeffective device                    a productive method                  - a highlyproductive method               equal volumes                   - nearlyequal volumes                         big supplies of energy                 - immenselybig supplies of energy             simple devices                             - equallysimple devices                        efficient research                         - highlyefficient research

Words to be learnt:

    universe – вселенная, космос   to bend – наклонять(ся)

    pull – сила тяги, тянущая сила      effect – влияние, воздействие

    according to – в соответствии с      by means of – при помощи

    to attract – притягивать            motion - движение

    to continue – продолжать        to clarify – пояснять, разъяснять                  

    to hold – удерживать                     quantity – количество

    fine matters – мелкие вещества

G r a v i t a t i o n

        Gravitation is a very important force in the universe. Every object has a gravitational pull which is like magnetism. But, unlike magnetism, gravitation is not only in iron and steel. It is in every object large or small; but large objects, such as Earth, have a stronger pull than small ones.

    According to the law which Newton later produced everything in the universe attracts everything else towards itself. The sun attracts the Earth and the Earth attracts the sun. The Earth attracts the Moon and the Moon attracts the Sun. Although the bigger object has the stronger attraction, all objects, in fact, have some attraction too but we do not notice the gravitational pull of a book, because the pull of the Earth is very much greater.

    Why does the Earth always move round the Sun, and not fly off into cold space? The Sun’s gravitation gives the answer. The Earth always tries to move away in a straight line, but the sun always pulls it back. So it continues on its journey round and round the Sun. The Sun is one of the stars in the galaxy.

    There are millions of galaxies in the universe and so there are thousands of millions of millions of Suns. Many astronomers believe that some of these Suns have planets as our sun does.

    Gravitation is the force which holds all the atoms of a star together. It holds the Sun together and it holds the atoms of the Earth together. It holds us on the Earth.

    Einstein produced a new law of gravitation. Its main results are the same as the results of Newton’s law; but in very small and fine matters Einstein’s law give different results. One of these is that gravitation bends light a little; but according to Newton’s law gravitation has very little effect on light. Einstein showed this fact by means of mathematics and not by experiment. And astronomers later proved by experiments that Einstein was right.

    Many people already knew that the planets moved endlessly round the Sun. But nobody could explain what kept them moving. Newton showed that the motions of the planets were the natural result of universal laws of nature. In his great work, the “Principia”. Newton clarified all that he had discovered about the movements of planets and their satellites. Newton calculated the force of gravity between the Sun and the planets and the quantity of matter in all these objects.

    Ответьте на вопросы:

1. What is a very important force in the universe?

2. What law did motion produce?

3. Why does the Earth always move round the Sun?

4. What does gravitation hold?

5. What results does Einstein’s new law give?

    Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на сказуемые:

    a) с модальными глаголами:

1. We must use new methods in our research works.

2. You may use this instrument for measuring distances.

3. They ought to help their friend to solve this important problem.

4. He could not complete his research in time as he worked very slowly.

5. You should turn off the light before you leave the room.

6. Youmay use these devices for your research.

     б) с эквивалентом модального глагола:

1. The students were unable (were not able) to do the work without their teacher’s help. He had to help them.

2. You needn’t take all these measurements. We already know the results.

3. He had to work hard before he was able to complete his research

4. You will have to show the equation to your teacher.

5. Nobody was able to understand this mysterious phenomenon.

6. As the student was late he wasn’t allowed to complete his work.

7. Every technical student is to study mathematics.

     Определите значения интернациональных слов, не прибегая к помощи словаря, переведите интернациональные слова. Обратите внимание  на их полное совпадение с соответствующими русскими словами по значению:

    basis [ˈbeɪsɪs] n                               apparatus [ˌæp.əˈreɪ.təs] n

    engineer [ˌendʒɪˈnɪə] n            principle [ˈprɪnsəpl] n

    industry [ˈɪndəstri] n                       progress[ˈprəʊɡres] n

    inspect [ɪnˈspekt] v               technological [ˌtek.nəˈlɒdʒ.ɪ.kəl] a

    result [rɪˈzʌlt] n

     Образуйте глаголы от существительных посредством переноса ударения, прочтите существительные и глаголы, дайте их перевод:

progress, increase, export, object, record, project, transport.

    В выделенных словах укажите суффиксы, определите части речи, к которым относятся эти слова, и переведите словосочетания:

    Changeable parts, the theory of relativity, continuousprocess, highly efficient devices, great thinker, largely experimental construction, acceleration process, technologicalprogress, flexible lines.

    Переведите со словарём слова, частично совпадающие с соответствующими русскими словами по значению и звучанию:

        complex [‘kompleks] a               operation [,opə’reɪʃn] n                        factor [‘fæktə] n                           product [‘prodʌkt] n                            form [fɔ:m] v                         structure [‘strʌktʃə] n                           module [‘modju:l] n              revolution [,revə’lu:ʃn] n

    К словам из группы (а) подберите антонимы из группы (б):

a)Below, short, large, right, simple, on, after, light, easy, hard, near, high, late, man-made, similar;

b)Far, different, difficult, dark, small, long, low, early, natural, above, left, complex, before, under, soft.

    Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на различные способы выражения долженствования:

                                                                                    to have to

                                      must                                 ought to

                                                                                    to be to

                                                                                    should

1. In scientific work, we must measure in units of the metric system.

2. These measurements are very complex and the worker has to use special instruments.

3. We ought to say that the discovery of atomic energy is as important as the discovery of fire.

4. We should be prepared for scientific study of life on other planets.

5. Atoms must serve mankind.

6. The lecture is to begin at 6 o’clock. We ought to come in time.

7. You were to replace the method by another one, why didn’t you do it?

8. He had much work, He had to work hard to improve his project.

9. The engineer will have to improve the accuracy of these measurements.

10. He had to work hard before he was able to submit his paper to a scientific journal.

Выберите перевод выделенных слов:

a) 1. discovery – a) решение; b) открытие; c) различие; d) сравнение.

2.breadth– a) толщина; b) длина; c) высота; d) ширина.

3. property – a) часть; b) свойство; c) давление; d) мощность.

4.define – a) делить; b) определять; c) производить; d) понимать.

5.numerous – a) целый; b) многочисленный; c) похожий; d) обычный.

b) 6.угол – a) square; b) angle; c) circle; d) solid.

7.исследование – a) dimension; b) field; c) subject; d) research.

8.вес – a) thing; b) volume; c) weight; d) matter.

9.улучшать ­– a) exist; b) improve; c) establish; d) explain.

10.продолжать – a) continue; b) heat; c) revolve; d) turn.

11.лёгкий– a) equal; b) easy; c) even; d) each.

    Образуйте глаголы от существительных. Переведите как исходные, так и вновь образованные слова:

    Building, understanding, improvement, equipment, foundation, location, protection, adoption, explanation, development, existence, designer, builder, founder

Words to be learnt:

to establish –устанавливать

to inter –выводить

eclipse –затмение

circularity –круглая форма, округлость

attitude –положение

response –ответ, реакция

deduction – вывод

circumference – окружность

oblate – сплющенный

to squish –сплющивать

to result in – приводить к

bulge – выпуклость

to cause –вызывать, заставлять

rotation – вращение

to contract – сжиматься,                                         сокращаться

to distort – искажать, деформировать

THE SHAPE OF THE EARTH

    The first voyage around the world established that the earth is a globe. But long ago the nearly spherical form of the earth had been inferred from a variety of observations e.g. the circular boundary of the earth’s shadow on the moon during an eclipse and the circularity of the horizon when observed, combined with the fact its distance increases with the attitude of the observer.

    The reason for the spherical shape of the earth became clear when Newton discovered the law of gravitation. All particles of the earth are pulled toward the center of gravity and the spherical shape is the natural response to the maximum possible concentration. The earth is not exactly spherical, however. Again, it was Newton who first showed that because of the earth’s rotation its matter is affected not only by an inward gravitation, but also by an outward centrifugal force, which reaches its maximum at equator. Expeditions were dispatched to Peru in 1735 and to Lapland in 1736 to test this idea, and Newton’s deduction was confirmed.

The Earth’s circumference and diameter differ because its shape is classified as an oblate spheroid or ellipsoid, instead of a true sphere. This means that instead of being of equal circumference in all areas, the poles are squished, resulting in a bulge at the equator, and thus a larger circumference and diameter there.

  The equatorial bulge at the Earth’s equator is measured at 25.6 miles (42.72 km) and is caused by the planet’s rotation and gravity. Gravity itself causes planets and other celestial bodies to contract and form a sphere. This is because it pulls all the mass of an object as close to the center of gravity (the Earth’s core in this case) as possible.

  As the Earth rotates, this sphere is distorted by the centrifugal force. This is the force that causes objects to move outward away from the center of gravity. Therefore, as the Earth rotates, centrifugal force is the greatest at the equator so it causes a slight outward bulge there, giving that region a larger circumference and diameter. Local topography also plays a role in the Earth’s shape, but on a global scale its role is very small.

Ответьте на вопросы:

1. What had nearby spherical form of the Earth been inferred from?

2. When did the reason for the spherical shape of the Earth become clear?

3. In what way did Newton prove that the Earth is not exactly spherical?

4. Why do the Earth’s circumference and diameter differ?

5. In what way does gravity affect the equatorial bulge at the Earth’s equator?

6. When is the centrifugal force the greatest at the equator? What does the centrifugal cause as the Earth rotates?

    Проверьте, знаете ли вы следующие слова и словосочетания, необходимые для понимания текста.

    А) Найдите в правой колонке русские эквиваленты:

average

solar

to sustain

property

to thrive

dense

поддерживать

плотный

свойство

процветать

солнечный

средний

Б) Найдите в правой колонке английские эквиваленты:

слой, пласт

средний, нормальный

окружать

цифра, число

ядро Земли

мантия

mean

figure

mantle

core

layer

to surround

EARTH’S SIZE

    The Earth’s, with average distance of 92.955.820 miles (149.597.890 km) from the sun, is the third planet and one of the most unique planets in the solar system. It was formed around 4.5-4.6 billion years ago and is the only planet known to sustain life. This is because factors like its atmospheric composition and physical properties such as the presence of water over 70.8% of the planet allow life to thrive.

    The size of the Earth, like the size of all of the celestial bodies, is measured in a number of parameters including mass, volume, density, surface area, and equatorial/polar/mean diameter. While we live on this planet, very few people can quote you the figures for these parameters.

    As the largest of the terrestrial planets, the Earth has an estimated mass of 5.9736*1024 kg. Its volume is also the largest of these planets at 108.321*1010 km^3. In addition, the Earth is the densest of the terrestrial planets as it is made up of a crust, mantle and core. The Earth’s crust is the thinnest of these layers while the mantle comprises 84% of Earth’s volume and extends 1.800 miles (2900 km) below the surface. What makes Earth the densest of these planets however is its

core. It is the only terrestrial planet with a liquid outer core that surrounds a solid, dense inner core. Earth’s average density is 5515*10 kg/m^3.

    The Earth is classified as the largest of the terrestrial planets based on its circumference and diameter as well. At the equator, Earth’s circumference is 24.901.55 miles (40.075.16 km). Earth’s diameter at the poles is 7.899.80 miles (12.713.5 km) while it is 7.926.28 miles (12.756.1 km) at the equator. For comparison, the largest planet in the Earth’s solar system, Jupiter, has a diameter of 88,846 miles (142.984 km).

    Проверьте, знаете ли вы следующие слова и словосочетания, необходимые для понимания текста.

А) Найдите в правой колонке русские эквиваленты:

regular

crevice

to complete

smooth

to flatten

ровный, однородный

завершать

трещина, щель

сплющивать, сглаживать

правильный, нормальный

Б) Найдите в правой колонке английские эквиваленты:

испытывать

выдаваться, выпирать

распределять, распространять

падения (пласта)

вид, видимость

to bulge

to distribute

to experience

appearance

dip

THE FIGURE OF THE EARTH

    The Earth’s shape is nearly spherical, with a radius of about 3,963 miles (6,378 km), and its surface is very irregular. Mountains and valleys make actually measuring this surface impossible because an infinite amount of data would be needed. For example, if you wanted to find the actual surface area of the Grand Canyon, you would have to cover every inch of land. It would take you many lifetimes to measure every crevice, valley, and rise. You could never complete the project because it would take too long.

To measure the Earth and avoid the problems that places like the Grand Canyon present, geodesists use a theoretical mathematical surface called the ellipsoid. Because the ellipsoid exists only in theory and not in real life, it can be completely smooth and does not take any irregularities – such as mountains or valleys – into account. The ellipsoid is created by rotating and ellipse around  its shorter axis. This matches the real Earth’s shape, because the Earth is slightly flattened at the poles and bulges at the equator.

While the ellipsoid gives a common reference to geodesists, it is still only a mathematical concept. Geodesist often need to account for the reality of the Earth’s surface. To meet this need, the geoid, a shape that refers to global mean sea level, was created. If the geoid really existed, the surface of the Earth would be equal to a level in between the hide-tide and low-tide marks.

Although a geoid may seem to be a smooth, regular shape, it isn’t. The Earth’s mass is unevenly distributed, meaning that certain areas of the planet experience more gravitational “pull” than others. Because of these variations in gravitational force, the “height” of different parts of the geoid is always changing, moving up and down in response to gravity. The geoidal surface is an irregular shape with a wavy appearance; there are rises in some areas and dips in others.

    Проверьте, знаете ли вы следующие слова и словосочетания, необходимые для понимания текста.

А) Найдите в правой колонке русские эквиваленты:

influence

plumb line

to level

to coincide

at rest

приводить (в направление)

совпадать, соответствовать

состоянии покоя

отвес

влияние

Б) Найдите в правой колонке английские эквиваленты:

направлять

проистекать, происходить

равномерный, одинаковый

соответствовать

избыток

even

to point

to correspond

excess

to result from

G E O I D

The geoid is the shape that the surface of the oceans would take under the influence of Earth’s gravitation and rotation alone, in the absence of other influences such as winds and tides. This surface is extended through the continents (such as with very narrow hypothetical canals). All points on the geoid have the same gravity potential energy (the sum of gravitational potential energy and centrifugal potential energy). The force of gravity acts everywhere perpendicular to the geoid, meaning that plumb lines point perpendicular and water levels parallel to the geoid.

Specifically, the geoid is the equipotential surface that would coincide with the mean ocean surface of the Earth if the oceans and atmosphere were in equilibrium, at rest relative to the rotating Earth, and extended through the continents (such as with very narrow canals). According to Gauss, who first described it, it is the “mathematical figure of the Earth”, a smooth but highly irregular surface whose shape results from the uneven distribution of mass within and on the surface of the Earth. It does not correspond to the actual surface of the Earth’s crust, but to a surface which can only be known through extensive gravitational measurements and calculations. It is often described as the true physical figure of the Earth, in contrast to the idealized geometrical figure of a reference ellipsoid.

The surface of the geoid is higher than the reference ellipsoid wherever there is a positive gravity anomaly (mass excess) and lower than the reference ellipsoid wherever there is a negative gravity anomaly (mass deficit)

    Проверьте, знаете ли вы следующие слова и словосочетания, необходимые для понимания текста.

А) Найдите в правой колонке русские эквиваленты:

to derive

representation

interpretation

to furnish

dispensable

предоставлять

объяснение, раскрытие

представление, показ

необязательный несущественный

получать

Б) Найдите в правой колонке английские эквиваленты:

операции, процесс                             displacement                

важность                                              procedure

переоценивать                                     to lay out

планировать                                        to overestimate

перемещение                                       significance

S U R V E Y I N G

Surveying is a science of making measurements on the earth’s surface, determining the figure and dimensions of the form of plans and maps.

“Geodesy”, which means surveying, a word of Greek origin, is translated as “division of earth”.

The science of surveying derives its origin from practical requirements of man. Determination of the figure and dimensions of the earth is the object of geodetic surveying. Procedures related to the representation of small parts of earth’s surface in the form of plans are the object of plane surveying.

The progress of surveying is closely related to number of other sciences. Mathematics, physics, and astronomy have all had a great share in promoting the progress of geodesy. Mathematics provides methods of analysis and techniques for interpretation of measurements results. Physics furnishes formulae for computing various optical devices and instrumental data required by surveying.

Surveying is also closely connected with geography, geology and, particularly, with geomorphology. The knowledge of geography is indispensable for a correct interpretation of landscape elements such as relief features, natural cover of the earth’s surface (vegetation, soils, seas, lakes, rivers), and cultural and man-made and features, (settlements, roads, means of communication, economic establishments.)

The practical significance of surveying cannot be overestimated. Without geodetic measurements it is impossible to lay out road, canals, underground structures, such as underground railways, pipelines, cable lines, overhead systems such as electric transmission lines, communication lines. Surveying is required in territorial surveys, in laying out construction projects, in making various measurements at the separate stages of construction, and even to determine the amount of deformation and displacement in existing structures.

Surveying is an element of town planning, green plantation and development projects in cities and towns. Realization of the project demands that engineer is capable of carrying out surveying operations which are necessary for setting out the engineering structure.

Определите по суффиксу часть речи: а) существительное;             b) прилагательное; c) наречие:

    1. weightless; 2. function; 3. physicist; 4. thickness; 5. usually; 6. experimental; 7. transmission; 8. operator; 9. reading; 10. examiner; 11. changeable; 12. completely; 13. improvement.

Выберите английское слово, соответствующее русскому:

1. отражение - a) reflect; b) reflective; с) reflection.

2. бесполезный - a) use; b) useless; с) useful; d) usefulness.

3. равенство - a) equal; b) equally; c) equality.

Сравните сказуемые в данных предложениях, затем переведите и объясните, чем обусловлено изменение смысла:

1. The scientist is asked to make...

2. The designer is informed...

3. The tests are followed by...

4. The control system protected...

5. I was offered...

6. We were helped...

- He is to be asked to make...

- He is to be informed...

- They are to be followed by...

- It is to be protected...

- I was to be offered...

- - We were to be helped.

Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на перевод сказуемого в страдательном залоге:

1. Many scientists were invited to work at the design of the system.

2. The young specialists were offered to concentrate their efforts on the construction of the project.

3. The designers were given the necessary information about the planet.

4. The experimental model will be followed by mass production.

5. The original design of the protective complex was already referred to in some journals.

6. The new method was paid great attention to.

7. The engineers’ measurements and calculations can be relied on.

8. The operation of the device will not be influenced by outer factors.

Пользуясь колонкой справа, назовите время и залог сказуемого. Сочетания слов переведите:

1. We are installing new equipment...

2. It was installed...

3. It was being installed...

4. It is installed...

5. It will be installed...

6. It is being installed...

7. We will be installing it…

- Present Indefinite Passive

- Past Continuous Passive

- Future Indefinite Passive

- Present Continuous Passive

- Past Indefinite Passive

- Future Continuous Active

- Present Continuous Passive.

Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на время и залог сказуемого:

1. Interesting and important researches are done all over the world. An interesting research in the field of geodesy is being done at our Institute.

2. Weather conditions in the North were studied by meteorologists daily. The information about these conditions was being studied by our group for a week.

3. The accuracy of the instruments will be improved from year to year. One instrument is being worked at in out laboratory.

Образуйте глаголы при помощи данных суффиксов и переведите как исходные, так и производные слова:

    -en: length, strength, hard, wid(e), broad

    -ify: solid, pur(e), simpl(e), intens(e), qual(ity)

    -ize: magnet, organ, character, special, pressur(e)

Образуйте при помощи суффикса -ion существительные от глаголов с суффиксом -ate и переведите как исходные, так и производные слова:

    illustrat(e), regulat(e), demonstrat(e), accelerat(e), indicat(e), activat(e), concentrat(e)

Переведите слова одного корня, обращая внимание на способы образования различных частей речи:

1. Long a

strong a

high a

2. broad a

deep a

wide a

3. thick a

weak a

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

length

strength

height

broaden

deepen

widen

thicken

weaken

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

lengthen

strengthen

heighten

breadth

depth

width

thickness

weakness

Words to be learnt:

to invent – изобретать

to carry out – выполнять

to stumble – натолкнуться

to magnify – увеличивать

artisan – мастеровой

convex – выпуклый

concave – вогнутая

to house – вмещать, помещать

dome – купол

to make a great contribution – вносить вклад во что-либо

TELESCOPE

For more than four centuries telescopes have been the Earth's window on the universe. But the views they give have been limited by the size and shape of the instruments.

Invention of a Telescope. The first telescope is considered to have been invented by three Dutch glass polishers, Jansen, Metius and Lippersheim. While carrying out their jobs they must have stumbled on the ability of a system of two lenses to magnify distant objects. However, the telescopes manufactured by Dutch artisans were far from adequate.

The first more or less adequate telescope was invented and manufactured in 1609 by the famous Italian scientist Galileo (1564-1642). It was the first real telescope in the world. Galileo described his telescope thus: “I made a lead tube, and fixed an optical glass at each end. Both of them were flat on one side, while on the other side one lens was convex and the other concave. By looking through the concave glass I saw the objects much bigger and closer; they seemed ten times bigger than they were in reality”. Now scientists in many countries are developing bigger telescopes that will enable astronomers to look deeper into the corners of the universe. The main principle of a telescope is: the larger the mirror, the clearer and brighter the reflected image will be.

The world’s largest optical telescope is at 2.100 meters above the sea level. It was designed and created at the Optical and Mechanical Association. The main part of the telescope is the mirror which is six meters in diameter and weights 42 tons. The mirror’s area is about 30 square meters and it has been polished to the highest degree of accuracy. The telescope is housed in a tower with a revolving 1.000-ton dome.

Many countries have developed large-size optical telescopes in the recent 30 years, but this telescope is the most powerful. The following gives an idea of what the telescope can do. With this telescope a candle flame can be seen from a distance of 25.000 km. Its power is 40-50 million times greater than, that of a naked eye. With this telescope astronomers can investigate the most remote bodies in the universe. It will help to solve many important scientific problems, thus making a great contribution to the mankind’s knowledge. Astronomers have used the telescope to take several unique photographs of stars. The development of this unique telescope is a great achievement of Russian science and technology.

Ответьте на вопросы:

1. What is the history of the first telescope?

2. In what way did Galileo describe his real telescope?

3. What modem telescopes are scientists developing now?

4. What is the main principle of a modem telescope?

5. What is the main part of the world’s largest optical telescope?

6. Why is a large-size telescope a great achievement of science and technology?

Сравните данные пары предложений, обращая внимание на время и залог сказуемого. Предложения переведите:

1. They have already applied new methods in their research.

2. Our country has developed into a powerful state and has made great

progress in all fields of industry, technology and science.

New methods of obtaining polymers have been applied at our plant.

The flexible line that has been recently developed at our plant has greatly improved the production process.

1. By the end of the 19th century scientists had made the first attempts to obtain synthetic materials.

2. The workers will have built this new house by the beginning of the new year.

 A great number of experiments at the designing institute had been made before the flood defence system was worked out.

Our workshop will have been equipped with new multipurpose machine tools by the time when the reconstruction of the plant is over.

В следующих парах предложений определите время и залог сказуемого. Предложения переведите:

1. The engineers at our laboratory' made a very interesting experiment last week. Our country has made great achievements in all fields of industry, technology and science.

2. During the nineteenth century a great development of science and technology took place in the world. Rapid changes have taken place in science and technology since the end of the Second World War.

3. An interesting phenomenon in the field of gravimetrical effects was discovered by Russian scientists. Almost all chemical elements which have been found on the Earth have been discovered in the Sun and the planets of solar system.

Переведите сочетания, обращая внимание на перевод слов одного корня:

    to apply a new method; an applicable method; application of new ways of production

    to direct the movement; a direct contact; the direction of flight; to use the method directly

К словам из группы (а) подберите антонимы из группы (б):

    а) modern, regular, outer, to strengthen, to include, to like, possible, rapidly, past, efficient, unlimited, accurate

    б) slowly, impossible, inefficient, future, limited, inner, old, inaccurate, irregular, to dislike, to weaken, to exclude

К словам из группы (а) подберите синонимы из группы (б):

    a) to proceed, normally, owing to, accurate, to provide, various, to switch on, a lot of, large, to use, man-made, for instance, to define

    6) many, for example, to turn on, to continue, artificial, to supply, big. to determine, precise, usually, to apply, different, due to

Определите по суффиксу часть речи: а) существительное, b)глагол, с) прилагательное, d) наречие:

1. lengthen; 2. appearance; 3. scientific; 4. improvement; 5. sensitive;      6. various; 7. helpless; 8. precisely; 9. characterize; 10. difference; 11. inventor

Выберите английские слова, соответствующие выделенным русским:

1. размер - a) size; b) side; с) shape; d) sort

2. точный - a) powerful; b) possible; c) pure; d) precise

3. проект - a) defence; b) design; c) forecast; d) level

4. применение - a) foundation; b) solution; c) application; d) education

5. обеспечить - a) produce; b) provide; c) establish; d) measure

Выберите синонимы к выделенным словам:

6. have - a) supply; b) possess; c) put; d) pour

7. carry out - a) play; b) pass; c) protect; d) conduct

8. link - a) connect; b) locate; c) listen; d) look

9. receive - a) run; b) rise; c) raise; d) get

Выберите антонимы к выделенным словам:

10. send - a) test; b) receive; с) turn; d) offer

11. various - a) powerful; b) similar; c) huge; d) wide

12. rapidly - a) slowly; b) deeply; c) brightly; d) widely

Сравните формы и перевод Participle I и II в функции:

а) определения, стоящего перед определяемым словом:

    boiling water

    developed country

    reflecting surface

boiled water

developing country

reflected light

б) определения, стоящего после определяемого слова:

We need device improving the accurate measurements.

The lab assistant making the experiment works in the evening.

The device improved gives more accuracy measurements.

The results of the experiment madein our lab were goo

He прибегая к помощи словаря, переведите интернациональные слова:

classification [ˌklæsɪfɪˈkeɪʃn] n

horizontal [ˌhɒrɪˈzɒntl] a

apparatus [ˌæpəˈreɪtəs] n